BLOG
What happens when you bring high-level government officials, regional experts from UN agencies, and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), alongside civil society, think tanks, and researchers from across the Bay of Bengal and Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) regions into the same room? Besides technical exchange through dialogue, something deeper also begins to take shape - a deliberate, consensus-driven movement to place gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) at the heart of regional climate governance.
Held on July 14–15, 2025, at ICIMOD, Nepal, the Regional capacity building and consultation workshop for inclusive climate policy and planning was more than a workshop – it was a convergence of perspectives, mandates, and institutional strength. Anchored in the strategic collaboration between ICIMOD, UN Women, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) Secretariat, this two-day gathering laid the groundwork for systematically embedding GESI within climate action across South and Southeast Asia, covering ICIMOD’s Regional Member Countries and BIMSTEC Member States.
Spanning the frozen glaciers of the Himalayas to the saltwater deltas of the Bay of Bengal, the BIMSTEC-HKH region encapsulates one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable corridors. The melting cryosphere contributes to rising seas downstream. Women, Indigenous Peoples, and marginalised groups across this geography often bear the brunt of cascading risks from flash floods in the mountains to salinity intrusion in coastal villages.
This workshop reframed climate planning as a regional continuum linking the snow-fed headwaters of the Hindu Kush Himalaya to the river basins and deltas of the Bay of Bengal. Participants emphasised the importance of integrated, transboundary approaches that recognise this hydrological and socio-political interconnectedness.
The shared insight: to ensure inclusive climate resilience, GESI cannot be localised. It must be incorporated in all forms of governance from the cryosphere to the coast.
The workshop unfolded as a multi-level policy laboratory. Sessions span from unpacking gendered vulnerabilities and exploring GESI-integrated climate finance to identifying institutional mechanisms and policy pathways. Participants examined existing national frameworks and dissected gaps in data, financing, and coordination through a GESI lens. Experts shared critical tools for mainstreaming gender in climate finance and monitoring, while country delegates presented lessons from national experiences ranging from Nepal’s gender-budgeted climate policies to Bangladesh’s cross-ministerial approaches for supporting women in coastal zones.
The output was a shared recognition that GESI integration must go beyond thematic tick-boxing. It requires strategic institutionalisation, political commitment, and transformative financing mechanisms.
The climate crisis does not respect borders, and therefore neither should solutions. Panel discussions and breakout groups emphasised the value of regional bodies in facilitating cross-border learning, data-sharing, and resource mobilisation. Several proposals, including a BIMSTEC and HKH-wide gender-responsive climate task force, regional financing facilities, and a shared knowledge hub, illustrate the momentum toward collective regional action.
By the end of Day two, the workshop yielded more than just ideas. It generated actionable roadmaps. Key outcomes included:
The facilitation team, drawn from ICIMOD, UN Women, UNEP, and BIMSTEC Secretariat, worked as a coordinated unit, enabling knowledge-sharing across ministries, sectors, and borders.
The workshop affirmed a central insight: policy shifts when women, youth, Indigenous Peoples, persons with disabilities, and marginalised groups are recognised not just as ‘beneficiaries’ but as active agents of change.
This is the promise of a regional GESI agenda and not parallel to climate discourse, but integral to its architecture. The real work begins now, moving from capacity-building to coalition-building, from conversations to commitments, and from policy papers to programmatic actions.
The workshop marks a foundational step in that journey - powered by the strategic collaboration between UN Women, UNEP, ICIMOD, and the BIMSTEC Secretariat. Together, these institutions brought their distinct mandates and complementary strengths into a shared regional platform. The result: not just knowledge exchange, but co-creation; not just convening, but consensus-building.
This alliance demonstrates what is possible when multilateral organisations align their efforts around a unified vision - one that centres gender equality and regional resilience as core pillars of climate governance. Because when governments, experts, and communities collaborate, not just consult, the blueprint for inclusive climate resilience is no longer theoretical. And when that happens, the mountain and the coast speak with many voices but one vision. A vision forged in solidarity, flowing from the cryosphere to the coast.
High air pollution episodes resulting from forest fires, regional haze, and crop residue burning elevate concentrations of gaseous pollutants and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). The tiny particles present in the ambient air can penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, causing various health effects such as respiratory infections, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiovascular diseases, stroke, diabetes, and premature mortality. Epidemiological studies (research on how and why diseases occur in different groups of people) so far have revealed that even a short-term exposure for few hours or a few days to elevated PM2.5 levels can increase the risk for hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiac conditions, especially among vulnerable groups like children, older people, and people with pre-existing health conditions such as asthma, heart diseases or diabetes, or even outdoor workers.
Across South Asia, the proportion of outdoor workers is proportionately higher, and they are particularly susceptible to the harmful effects of severe pollution events. These vulnerable groups include street vendors, rickshaw (three-wheeled passenger cart) drivers, and construction labourers.
Beyond physical health, high-pollution events can also exacerbate mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression, as people are often forced to limit outdoor activities. High episode events significantly affect visibility, disrupting transportation, increasing accidents and delays. Together, these can have an impact on local businesses and tourism, ultimately reducing both local and national income. This was the case in Kathmandu Valley in March 2025, when smoke from widespread forest fires in the plains travelled long distances and significantly deteriorated the valley’s air quality. This spike in pollution showed how a single pollution event can affect areas far from its source. This underscores that air pollution from such episodic events is not just a local issue, but a broader public health and environmental concern. To stay safe during such episodes, it is important that individuals and families minimise exposure and stay safe during high pollution episodes. Below are some of the tested measures to follow:
Avoiding exposure during high pollution events is the most effective strategy for protecting individuals across all age groups. However, not everyone can afford to stay indoors, as daily responsibilities for work, commuting, and other essential activities often require outdoor exposure. While vulnerable groups such as children, older people, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions may be able to stay indoors during such periods, attention must also be given to indoor air quality, which can still pose significant health risks if not properly managed.
For those who need to commute, it is recommended to wear a well-fitted proper mask, avoid highly polluted areas like heavy traffic areas, smoky burning areas, if possible, etc. Along with these, other protective measures are explored further throughout this article.
Air purifiers are now available widely. This is increasingly becoming one of the most sought-after solutions to reduce exposure in indoor environments during high air pollution episodes. Earlier, these devices were mostly confined to hospitals or homes with elderly or critically ill individuals. In the last few years, their use has expanded, particularly in severely polluted urban centres like Delhi and Kathmandu, which experience frequent and longer duration of pollution peaks.
High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters used in air purifiers are known to significantly reduce indoor PM2.5 concentrations, offering measurable respiratory benefits, especially for vulnerable groups. However, while effective, the economic burden of purchasing and maintaining purifiers can limit access for low-income households, raising questions of equity and sustainability. In such cases, there are low-cost do-it-yourself (DIY) air cleaners made using simple materials like a box fan and a furnace filter. This method, developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), provides an affordable and accessible option for improving indoor air quality. Experts recommend properly sealing windows and avoiding indoor pollution sources to improve the effectiveness of air purifiers.
Wearing face masks can provide a useful layer of personal protection. It is important to note that mask fit, and sealing play a crucial role in overall effectiveness. One simple yet effective way for people to protect themselves from harmful pollutants such as PM2.5 is by wearing the right type of mask. However, not all masks offer the same level of protection. If wearing a mask feels suffocating, causes discomfort, or leads to dizziness, especially during intense physical activity, it is advisable to remove it.
N95 masks typically offer the highest protection, effectively filtering out at an efficiency ranging from 64% to over 97% for airborne particles, including PM2.5. Surgical masks also provide moderate protection (efficiency between 56.3% and 83.2%), mainly against larger respiratory droplets but less against fine particulates; these are more effective than standard cloth masks, which showed significantly lower filtration performance. Alternatives such as muslin and sponge masks, face wash tissues, and cotton or other fabric masks are known to provide limited or no protection.
Right fit and comfort of mask is also equally important, as Dr. Meghnath Dhimal, Chief Research Officer, at Nepal Health Research Council explains, “Using the right kind of respirator mask, particularly during high air pollution events, is one of the simplest and most effective ways to reduce personal exposure to fine particles. But it is equally important to ensure the mask fits properly”.
Stay updated on air pollution levels in your locality through various online platforms such as https://www.iqair.com, https://www.airnow.gov, smog.icimod.org, pollution.gov.np, and airquality.cpcb.gov.in, airquality.cpcb.gov.in provide real-time air quality information, helping individuals prepare and take necessary precautions to reduce exposure.
Diet and nutrition also play a supportive role in reducing the impact of air pollution. Health professionals often recommend eating antioxidant-rich foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and nuts, that help combat inflammation. Additionally, consuming antioxidant-rich foods is known to reduce inflammation triggered by air pollution and other and other environmental stressors, thereby supporting overall respiratory and cardiovascular health. In addition, staying well hydrated during high pollution events is beneficial, especially when exposure is unavoidable. Proper hydration supports the body’s natural detoxification processes and can help cope with pollutants more effectively. Dr. Ram Krishna Chandyo, Associate Professor at the Department of Community Medicine, Nepal Medical College, suggests that “Hydration and nutrition are often overlooked in discussions on combating the impact of air pollution. But staying well-hydrated and eating a diet rich in antioxidants can help strengthen the body’s resilience to pollution-induced stress.”
Air pollution can affect not just our physical health but also our mental well-being. It is important to maintain a positive mindset, especially if there is a limited opportunity to be outdoors. Encouraging practices in relaxation techniques can help mitigate stress and anxiety, which are often exacerbated by poor air quality.
Staying safe during high pollution episodes needs both awareness and action. While systematic solutions must come from governments’ regulations and policies, each of us also needs to do a lot through behavioural change. By staying updated, making small daily changes, and using tools like masks and purifiers, we can protect ourselves and our families from adverse air quality.
In the fragile ecosystems of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), over 100 million people depend on spring water for drinking, agriculture, and livestock. However, nearly 50% of these critical water sources are drying up due to climate change, seismic movement, and unsustainable land use. We find that the benefits of springshed revival in 14 sites across three Indian Himalayan states exceed the costs (with a net economic benefit of USD 10.27 per household per month). This should help with the planning and policies for water and climate adaptation in mountain communities.
Natural springs are vital oases to arid and semi-arid ecosystems, acting as hydrologic refuges in mountainous regions like the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH). Beyond just serving as a source of drinking water, they are lifelines in some communities for human livelihoods and wildlife, and in general buffer against extreme climatic shocks. In the HKH’s fragile ecosystems, over 100 million people depend on these springs for drinking water, agriculture, and livestock rearing. Yet, the stakes are high: nearly 50% of these critical water points have either dried up or become seasonal due to geogenic pressures like shifting geology and anthropogenic risks from land use change and climate change.
Recognising that, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) rolled out a comprehensive, science-based springshed management initiative across four states in the Indian Himalayan region (IHR): Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand. The initiative marks a shift from traditional watershed conservation to a broader, more sustainable groundwater-focused strategy. To support and improve that initiative, an expert team of economists from the South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) conducted a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of spring revival and springshed management in the Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand, and published a research report titled ‘Cost-benefit analysis of springs revival in the Indian Himalayan Region’. This blog summarises the key findings from the report.
We used a participatory CBA approach based on a mix of scientific literature review, project-related information, and primary field insights using rapid appraisal by focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs). We began with a broad desk review, scanning global studies on springshed services in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) with parallels to the HKH region in general and the IHR in particular.
Our data come from three different sources - first, we conducted FGDs and KIIs across the three Indian Himalayan states: Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand; second, we gathered cost data from ICIMOD’s project documents, and local stakeholders guided by the six-step protocol for springshed management; and third, we combined these two sets of data sources using a technique called benefits transfer (which adjusts information gathered from a wider literature review to site specific features).
We identified five categories of costs: material, labour, operational, transportation, and miscellaneous. Meanwhile, benefits included tangible gains like improved health, time savings, and increased access to non-timber forest products (e.g. fodder). We recognised harder-to-quantify broader ecosystems as well as cultural services, but did not include these benefits because of time and resource constraints, and because the community respondents did not give prominence to these benefits. We assumed a discount rate of 5% and a 25-year horizon while analysing field data from 14 springs across the three states.
Fetching water is time-consuming. For example, in Thanakasoga Baudi, Himachal Pradesh, households previously spent 60-90 minutes per trip to distant springs. After the intervention, previously dried up or springs with declining water yield started yielding more water. As a result, the travel time came down to 15-30 minutes, saving 45-60 minutes per trip. With 2-3 trips daily and a local wage rate of USD (United States dollar) 4.20 per day, benefits from time savings amount to approximately USD 42 per household per month. Similarly, in Dhokung Dhara, Sikkim, excess water from revived springs has reduced waiting time by half, saving about 30-60 minutes daily across two trips, valued at USD 25 monthly with an average daily wage of USD 4.50 per day. Across all sites, the value of time savings averages USD 9.5 per household per month as a result of a significant gain in water yield, which also reduces drudgery, especially for women.
As a result of an increased yield of safe drinking water, households experience improved health. For example, in Jori Mata Baudi, waterborne illnesses such as diarrhoea dropped from 8-10 cases to 3-4 cases (a 60% reduction) annually. Across all fourteen sites, health benefits average to about USD 2 per household per month. Although this is not the case for every site, it is a clear indication of health benefits.
Additional water flow means extra moisture in the soil. As a result of the springshed revival, households at Upsala Shivani Dhara saved USD 9.10 monthly on fodder for cattle (avoiding fodder purchases at USD 0.12 per bundle). In Bonderi and Jalosa Ram Baudi, Himachal Pradesh, fodder production has doubled, saving about USD 2.50 per household monthly per site. The average across all sites is USD 1.01 per household per month – a small but meaningful saving.
Next, turning to the upfront and recurring costs of reviving the springs over a 25-year period (amortised using a 5% discount rate), we find that these are as little as USD 0.48 per household per month in Uttarakhand, USD 1.81 in Himachal Pradesh and USD 1.40 in Sikkim. The following table summarises the per household per month net benefits (including costs and benefits).
These results are promising, underscoring the economic viability of the springs revival project. Our findings estimate the per household, per month net benefits at approximately USD 12 in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and USD 7 in Sikkim. In simple terms, our analysis suggests that the spring revival efforts pass the basic cost-benefit test. Note, our analysis does not consider both the values related to ecosystem services, and cultural and aesthetic values tied to springs. Therefore, these figures represent only the lower bounds of net social benefits, which could only increase if we account for such additional benefits.
We observed variation in the components of both costs and benefits across our study sites. Some of the notable variations include:
Spring revival is not just about water – it is a catalyst for sustainable development:
The implication is straightforward: reviving Himalayan springs yields positive net benefits per household per month. Beyond the numbers, it safeguards a resource inseparable from cultural identity and ecological balance. As climate threats escalate in the HKH region, scaling these springs revival activities is not just prudent – it’s urgent.
In the race for rapid economic growth and abrupt demographic changes in the Hindu Kush Himalaya, including rural to urban migration, it is crucial for urbanisation and development to be planned. The choice of construction material in this development is vital, in terms of quality, safety, duration, cost, and taking into account health – especially as 40% of global emissions come from the construction sector. Bricks tell the story of the region’s most preferred and traditionally used building material in the region.
Asia dominates global brick production, contributing 86.87% of the world’s total brick production. At the forefront of the brick industry is China, producing over one trillion bricks annually, followed by the South Asian region, home to nearly a quarter of global brick production, producing 31 billion bricks annually. Beyond its economic and infrastructural significance, the brick industry employs a huge workforce. In Bangladesh, India, and Nepal, brick industries employ over 16 million people. Meanwhile, in Pakistan, it employs 1.3 million people and has about 20,000 brick kilns with an estimated 1.5% contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP).
However, the brick sector remains largely informal and faces pressing environmental and social challenges in South Asia. Unlike China, which has adopted a modernised brick-making process, other South Asian countries continue to rely on traditional, and less-efficient methods with high emissions – including particulate matter (PM), black carbon (BC) or soot (which is formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) – which contribute to the region’s air pollution crisis. These issues are further compounded by multiple underlying social issues. The significant number of brick workers comprises an internal and regional migrant workforce, many of whom work and migrate with families, including children, often working and living in precarious conditions. Issues such as child labour, poor occupational health and safety, and inadequate sanitation persist, while gender disparities – differences in people’s access to resources, status and level of wellbeing, based on gender – are driven by differences in skills, wages, and the nature of work undertaken, making the transformation of the sector critical.
Recognising these challenges, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has been working towards mitigating black carbon and CO2 emissions from brick production in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region since 2014. ICIMOD launched the Air Pollution Solutions Initiative in 2017 as the lead implementer of the Clean Brick Initiative of the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), formerly the Department for International Development (DFID) in Nepal.
This initiative focused on reducing emissions, and promoting cleaner, more efficient brick-making technologies. A cornerstone of this initiative is the promotion of ‘zigzag’ technology, which enhances brick production efficiency and reduces emissions significantly. In zigzag kilns, bricks are arranged in a zigzag pattern, which allows hot air to flow more efficiently, improving heat transfer from flue gases to the bricks. Studies show that zigzag technology can reduce emissions of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) by 35% and lower CO2 emissions by approximately 30%. PM2.5 present serious health hazards to communities, causing human illnesses and affecting animal and plant life.
ICIMOD co-developed a Social Code of Conduct to help improve the working and living conditions of workers and their families to promote safer working conditions and a socially responsive brick sector, with notable implementation in Nepal and Pakistan.
Punjab province in central-eastern Pakistan has emerged as a notable leader in the transition toward cleaner and socially responsive brick production. The transition process began in 2017 with the introduction of zigzag kilns by ICIMOD with the support of the Ministry of Climate Change and Environmental Coordination (MoCC), Pakistan. Since then, ICIMOD has collaborated with key stakeholders to facilitate the shift from traditional, high-polluting and less-efficient kilns known as ‘fixed chimney bull’s trench kiln’ (FCBTK) to zigzag kilns. Collaborators include the Brick Kiln Owners’ Association of Pakistan (BKOAP) and various government departments like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Environment Protection Department (EPD) Punjab, the Provincial Disaster Management Authority (PDMA), and the National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (NEECA). ICIMOD has conducted a series of capacity-building training sessions in cities across Pakistan, including Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Islamabad, Lahore, and Multan.
Punjab is at the forefront of adopting zigzag technology after the EPD Punjab enacted a policy mandating the conversion of traditional FCBTKs to zigzag technology in 2020. To date, about 11,000 kilns have been successfully converted to zigzag kilns in Punjab province. This shift also aligns with Pakistan’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) 2021, which prioritises the conversion of conventional kilns to zigzag kilns as a key tracking indicator for lower emissions.
EPD Punjab has played a crucial role in facilitating this transition by enforcing regulatory compliance, conducting extensive awareness campaigns, and offering technical support for kiln owners. Additionally, the department has collaborated with stakeholders, including the BKOAP, to ensure a smooth shift towards more environmentally friendly technology. It has also implemented a monitoring mechanism to track kiln conversions, imposed fines on non-compliant units, and enforced the prohibition of the use of substandard fuels to further reduce carbon emissions.
As part of its ongoing efforts, EPA Punjab has allocated unique identity cards – which include a geolocation tag and digitised identity numbers for each brick kiln – and carried out e-mapping for real-time monitoring and regulatory oversight. This initiative enhances transparency and contributes to effective tracking of kiln operations and environmental compliance. Furthermore, the department has launched a ‘Joining Carbon Hotspots with Carbon Sinks’ initiative, promoting drives to plant trees and shrubs around brick kilns to mitigate carbon emissions and improve air quality.
This proactive approach, coupled with the voluntary uptake of zigzag technology by the members of the BKOAP Punjab, has demonstrated success. As Hamid Sheikh, Director General of EPA-Punjab, remarked at the training on ‘Scaling Cleaner and Socially Responsive Brick Production in Sindh’ organised by jointly organized by EPD-Punjab, ICIMOD, BKOAP, Sindh People’s Housing for Flood Affectees (SPHF), Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and Asian Development Bank (ADB) : “Punjab’s brick kiln sector’s adoption of zigzag technology is a commendable step towards ensuring cleaner air in Punjab, and is a success story for other provinces to learn from.” The lessons learnt from here offer a scalable model for other provinces to follow, paving the way to achieve nationwide environmental benefits.
The urgency for cleaner and more efficient brick technology is even more pronounced in Sindh province, southeastern Pakistan, particularly after the devastating floods in 2022 that severely impacted homes, and infrastructure. Currently, there are an estimated 5,000 operational brick kilns, primarily consisting of clamp kilns (traditional method of baking bricks, done by stacking unbaked bricks with fuel under or among them, then igniting the fuel) and FCBTKs, which are highly polluting and inefficient. With the high demand for bricks in the province’s reconstruction efforts after the flood, Punjab’s successful adoption of zigzag technology offers a proven model for Sindh to follow, aligning with national climate policies and green recovery initiatives.
Minar Thapa Magar, National Coordinator at Sindh Housing Recovery and Reconstruction Platform (SHRRP) highlighted the critical need for this transition:
“After the 2022 floods, Sindh People’s Housing for Flood Affectees (SPHF) and the Government of Sindh had to rapidly rebuild over two million homes for families who lost everything. But reconstruction must also be climate conscious. With an estimated 60 billion bricks required solely for flood infrastructure reconstruction in Sindh, the transition of brick industries to zigzag is essential to lower emissions, reduce health impacts, improve brick productivity and protect jobs.”
Based on the urgency and the need for capacity building, EPD Punjab, ICIMOD, BKOAP, SHRRP, SPHF Catholic Relief Services (CRS), and the Asian Development Bank jointly organised a capacity-building training session in Lahore in December 2024.
The master trainers from BKOAP, backed by EPA Punjab and in support from the Federation of Nepal Brick Industries (FNBI) – under the regional network of the Federation of Asian Brick Kiln Association (FABKA) – imparted the technical and hands-on field-based training to 33 participants from Sindh. Training participants included brick kiln owners, officials from Sindh Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), Sindh Technical Education and Vocational Training Authority (STEVTA), and representatives from SHRRP and SPHF.
During the event, the Punjab Parliamentary Secretary, Kanwal Liaquat, emphasised that clean air is a constitutional right of citizens of Pakistan. She also highlighted Punjab’s commitment to sharing their knowledge from the brick sector with other stakeholders, not just within the country but also across borders. She said: “The introduction of Punjab’s first ever climate change policy, smog mitigation plan, and a historic allocation of 100 billion rupees (PKR) for climate improvement show the government’s seriousness in tackling environmental challenges.”
Following the training, Kirshan Lal Panriya, one of the brick kiln owners from Umerkot city in Sindh, expressed his commitment to change his brick kiln: “I will convert my brick kiln into zigzag technology as the technology is helpful in producing less carbon, saving the environment, and reducing my investment cost”.
The Asian Development Bank has committed to supporting the conversion to zigzag kilns in Sindh by supporting five pilot kilns, and CRS will support one pilot kiln. These efforts mark a significant step towards cleaner brick production in Sindh.
As this region’s brick sector continues to scale, the need for a sustainable transition, as demonstrated by Pakistan, has never been more crucial. The transition of the brick sector is not only about reducing emissions but also about building resilience and enhancing the livelihoods of millions of workers and communities across the region. The large share of brick industries operating across the region continue to impact both the health of the population and the environment. Brick workers, children, and neighbouring communities bear the brunt of exposure to the emission of black carbon and particulate matter that severely degrade air quality and human health. Moving forward, promoting and scaling the adoption of cleaner technologies and enforcing regulatory mechanisms that integrate the social safeguarding of brickworks is vital.
The Government of Nepal officially declared a drought emergency in the Madhesh Province on 24 July 2025, a rare occurrence in a region more often in the headlines for floods. While devastating floods and landslides across South Asia dominate the news, a slower, quieter, but no less catastrophic disaster is unfolding in the southeastern plains of Nepal. In Madhesh Province, widely known as Nepal’s ‘Grain Basket,’ a slow-onset drought is gripping farming communities at the heart of the nation’s food system.
Despite being in the middle of the monsoon season, the region has experienced persistently below-average rainfall. On 1 July, the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) of Nepal forecasted low precipitation in Madhesh Province during this monsoon, as shown in Figure 1.
This rainfall deficit has severely disrupted the rice transplantation calendar, the most time-sensitive and critical phase of the rice production cycle. This delay is not just an agricultural concern; it signals the early stages of a food security crisis.
As of 27 July 2025, only 51.82% of rice land in Madhesh had been transplanted, compared to 92% by the same week in 2024. Madhesh typically accounts for around 27% of Nepal’s total rice-growing area (approximately 353,441 hectares) and produces nearly 1.28 million metric tons of rice annually, with an average yield of 3.63 metric tons per hectare. Such a sharp decline of over 40% is unprecedented in recent years. Any disruption cascades throughout the growing season in a farming community where planting windows are tightly synchronised with rainfall.
In response to these growing concerns, in July 2025 the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) conducted a situational analysis of the drought’s impact on rice production in Madhesh using a combination of satellite imagery, climatic indicators, and agricultural statistics. Analysis of Sentinel-2 (an Earth Observation satellite) imagery showed a significant reduction in vegetative cover in Madhesh province compared to the same period in 2024, as shown in Figure 2.
Based on our assessment, ICIMOD estimates that over 40% of Madhesh’s rice-growing area, nearly 142,000 hectares, is under significant drought stress. This could result in a potential production loss of approximately 400,000 – 450,000 metric tons of rice. Even if rains resume, recovery may be limited due to poor seedling establishment, soil moisture depletion, and missed crop growth stages.
The implications are severe. Nationally, Nepal grows rice on about 1.33 million hectares, producing over 4.9 million metric tons annually. A production shock in Madhesh could ripple across the country, raising food prices, increasing import dependency, impacting trade balances, and reducing household incomes. With agriculture contributing 24.1% to Nepal’s GDP and rice as its staple crop, this drought has become not only a regional crisis but a national economic and food security threat.
The Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) showed much of the region under moderate to severe drought in the Madhesh province, especially Mahottari, Dhanusa, and Siraha districts, as shown in Figure 3, which is further confirmed by the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imaging data, as shown in Figure 4.
Both figures 3 and 4 show that the Mahottari, Dhanusa, and Siraha districts of Madhesh province are experiencing the most critical drought stress. The VCI map highlights widespread extreme drought throughout these districts, reflecting significant vegetation stress, while the SPI map confirms severe to extreme dry conditions due to prolonged rainfall deficits. These Earth Observation tools validate the scenario on the ground and demonstrate the value of remote sensing for early warning, damage assessment, and decision support.
Beyond the satellite-based evidence, Madhesh Province is currently experiencing all four major forms of drought. Meteorological drought has emerged from the persistent failure of the monsoon, while a hydrological drought, driven by an unusually dry winter, has drastically reduced water levels in rivers, canals, and groundwater reserves. These conditions have triggered a severe agricultural drought, with little to no rice transplantation taking place across the region. The crisis has now extended into a socio-economic drought, as prolonged water shortages disrupt livelihoods, strain local economies, and impact society.
As a response to this domino effect, the Madhesh Provincial Government declared the province as drought-stricken on 26 June 2025, followed by the Provincial Disaster Management Committee urging the federal government to escalate this status on 22 July 2025, resulting in a drought emergency being declared in the Madhesh Province.
To catalyse this, ICIMOD co-convened a multi-stakeholder meeting on 5 August 2025, bringing together representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD), and development partner World Food Programme (WFP) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The meeting served as a platform to discuss the development of a MoALD-led technical task force that would facilitate data sharing, produce timely advisories, and provide evidence-based policy recommendations. The proposed task force is expected to play a key role in enabling anticipatory action and strengthening Nepal’s drought resilience in the months and years ahead.
The unfolding drought crisis in Madhesh underscores the urgent need for robust early warning systems, timely response mechanisms, and science-driven policy action. In addition to this, recognising the relationship between Chure hills (upstream) and Madhesh (downstream), Integrated Water Resource Management is especially important in regions like this. As a regional knowledge centre, ICIMOD remains committed to supporting evidence-based decision-making through Earth Observation technologies, monitoring and outlook systems like the National Drought Watch Nepal, and strategic partnerships with government and development partners. The insights gained from this assessment highlight the scale of agricultural vulnerability and the transformative potential of integrating geospatial tools into disaster risk reduction and food security planning.
This activity is being implemented under the "Building Capabilities for Green, Climate-Resilient and Inclusive Development" (HI-GRID) project in the Lower Koshi River Basin in Nepal, supported by the Government of Australia.
Halting deforestation and forest degradation is one of the key options for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions, but delivering results on the ground remains a challenge. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD, where ‘+’ refers to enhancing forest carbon stocks) originally emerged under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations to incentivise low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) for conserving forests to sequester carbon. As the voluntary carbon market gained momentum, REDD+ projects began issuing forest carbon credits – tradable units sold to businesses and individuals aiming to offset their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While these credits now dominate the market, experience suggests that translating forest conservation into a reliable climate change mitigation option is far from straightforward.
The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) organise the Karl-Göran Mäler (KGM) Memorial Lecture biannually in memory of Professor Karl-Göran Mäler, who was one of the founders of SANDEE along with Sir Partha Dasgupta of Cambridge University.
Professor Erin Sills of North Carolina State University delivered the KGM Memorial Lecture this summer, in July 2025, as part of SANDEE’s 49th Research and Training Workshop in Sri Lanka. The Memorial Lecture was focused on the assessment of one of the world’s most ambitious performance-based climate mitigation initiatives, ‘Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+).’
The lecture intended to share learnings from empirical research assessing how well REDD+ has worked as a performance-based climate change mitigation tool. It revisited REDD+’s original promise, paying to reduce deforestation and forest degradation, and examined whether projects delivered measurable impacts.
Drawing on studies of REDD+ initiatives in the Brazilian Amazon and household-level information from sites across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the lecture highlighted both methodological challenges and practical realities. It explored difficulties in constructing credible baselines (comparison or reference group) and presented synthetic control methods as a plausible way out.
The REDD+ framework’s concept is elegantly simple, as forests naturally store carbon, and protecting them should help fight climate change while preserving biodiversity and supporting local communities. Yet, it is operationally complex, as the REDD+ programme provides financial incentives to LMICs to reduce deforestation and forest degradation while enhancing forest carbon stocks.
Over time, REDD+ projects became increasingly linked to the voluntary carbon market, where individuals and companies are trading in carbon credits to offset their private emissions. Professor Sills’ lecture discussed whether these forest projects were creating impacts (additionality). Using satellite data and advanced research methods, she studied forest projects in Brazil and selected other countries, with a group of collaborators, to examine whether protected areas experienced reduced deforestation than what they would have without the REDD+ projects.
Results from Prof. Sills and co-authors’ work show that, in Brazil, only one among 12 forest projects showed a statistically significant effect on reducing deforestation. Globally, just seven out of 18 projects showed real (statistically significant and economically meaningful) impacts. Projects claimed they would offset 90 million tonnes of carbon dioxide but delivered only six million tonnes, a 90% failure rate.
The few successful projects, though, had some aspects in common; for example, projects led by government agencies and Indigenous communities were more likely to demonstrate increased conservation results. In another study, a survey of 2,000 households across 17 REDD+ project sites in countries such as Peru, Brazil, Cameroon, Tanzania, Vietnam, and Indonesia reveals a more nuanced picture of impact. As many as 30% of these project participants reported having never heard of the project or feeling that it had no relevance to their lives. Another 30% acknowledged awareness of such projects but said those had not influenced their land use practices, while around 40% said the projects had indeed led them to change their land use practices. These findings suggest that while REDD+ is having a positive effect in many countries, its reach and impact are more limited than were initially anticipated.
In wrapping up, the lecture called for moving beyond offset-based models toward approaches that provide steady, outcome-driven investment in forest conservation—linking finance to verified results over time rather than one-off projections. The takeaway was clear: cutting emissions at the source remains one of the more effective ways to slow down the effects of global climate change. Forest conservation is still vital, not only for storing carbon but also for safeguarding biodiversity and supporting ecosystem services that people depend on. To play this role effectively, it needs financing systems grounded in accountability, realism, and lessons learned from the ground. REDD+ can still be part of the solution, but only if future efforts are designed to deliver tangible, lasting results rather than promises.
Please click the video link to watch the full lecture
Nepal’s richness in its high-value resources, including those in energy, agriculture, minerals and metals, medicinal herbs, forest resources, and tourism, has the potential for the setting up of new businesses. However, restrictive policies, inadequate regulatory frameworks, and limited market access have hindered this progress.
A fitting entrepreneurial ecosystem in the country is required to helm and provide all necessary skillsets, technology transfer and policy guidance required for this to take shape. The World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Report 2020 ranked the country 94th out of 190 economies based on factors such as access to credit information, cross-border trade, and other key business indicators. Nepal, a lower-middle-income country with a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $1,336.55 and 30.5 million people, shows mixed performance in its business environment. It excels in operational efficiency but falls short in regulatory framework, public services, and especially market competition. While it performs well in financial services and labour, it lags behind regional peers like Pakistan in areas such as business entry. Overall, Nepal has some strengths in business operations but needs significant improvements to create a more supportive environment for entrepreneurship and growth. But these factors get more complicated if conditions like climate change, environmental degradation, and socio-economic deprivation are factored in.
The act of doing business across the country is not the same. While certain regions reap benefits from better-developed sectors like tourism, other regions, like the Madhesh province, are prone to external shocks such as natural disasters, economic downturns, and political instability. Additionally, essential building blocks like technology transfer, education, and supporting infrastructure are often missing.
Given these conditions, how can the country encourage more founders to take the entrepreneurial leap?
To answer this question, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has been collaborating with the government of Nepal to identify and utilise national and provincial level opportunities to create more demand for startup thinking. ICIMOD has established a national consortium to foster and strengthen the entrepreneurial ecosystem of Nepal which includes participation from the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Supplies, private sector like the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI), and academia following the triple-helix model (a framework that describes the dynamic and synergistic interactions between universities (academia), industry, and government to foster innovation and entrepreneurship in a knowledge-based economy, where these three institutional spheres collaborate through overlapping roles, knowledge transfer, and resource sharing to drive economic and social development). This model has led to increased awareness of the government’s willingness to foster and strengthen the entrepreneurial landscape of Nepal.
Firstly, ICIMOD has been working to bridge the gap between public and private sector actors. An example of this effort is the partnership between the Birgunj Chamber of Commerce and Industries and the Industrial Enterprise Development Institution (IEDI). This collaboration seeks to leverage private sector expertise while strengthening public-private dialogue, ultimately supporting local business development and improving service delivery.
Secondly, we have also been focusing on strengthening institutional capacities at the national level. We aim to support authorities with relevant skillsets, which would lead to knowledge transfer and scaling of efforts at the provincial level. With this vision, we initiated the Startup Nation concept – a key platform to showcase the government and private sectors’ efforts in building a startup ecosystem. While ICIMOD has been supporting the government since 2023 with the Startup Nation 2030 initiative, one breakthrough was the Government of Nepal (GoN)’s commitment to establishing incubation centres (IC) in all seven provinces, signalling a strategic move toward nurturing a robust startup ecosystem. Although initial steps such as feasibility studies have been completed, the actual establishment of the ICs has yet to commence, indicating a need for accelerated implementation to realise the envisioned startup culture.
An incubation centre supports startups and early-stage businesses by providing resources like office space, mentorship, funding opportunities, and networking. It helps entrepreneurs overcome challenges, refine their ideas, and grow sustainably. By fostering innovation, incubation centres play a key role in driving economic development, creating jobs, and promoting innovation and technology transfer.
Thirdly, ICIMOD has also focused on creating relevant support systems to aid the government with its National Startup Policy 2024, a framework designed to promote entrepreneurship, support innovation, and facilitate the growth of startups in the country outlines several incentives to support startups, including tax exemptions, concessional loans, and the enhancement of accelerator programs through the establishment of ICs. The policy also aims to establish associations such as the Nepal Startup Council and the National Startup Board to provide focused support and governance for the startup ecosystem across the nation.
ICIMOD has also been working with the IEDI, a mandated agency for startup promotion and incubation centre development, since 2023, in developing startup-related policies and procedures. The institute also prioritises support to provinces like Madhesh, including the allocation of a budget for establishing an incubation centre. In collaboration with private sectors and development agencies, including ICIMOD, the government has launched initiatives to create ICs in all seven provinces (Koshi, Madhesh, Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali, and Sudurpachchim) of Nepal, particularly focusing on the Madhesh Province. This ambitious plan is part of a broader mission to transform Nepal into a hub for startups, to create 10,000 startups and 100,000 new quality jobs by 2030.
Thus, ICIMOD’s Building capabilities for green, climate resilient and inclusive development in the Lower Koshi River Basin (HI-GRID) project, supported by the Australian government, with its partner, has been working in the Madhesh Province to establish an incubation centre.
The Madhesh Province is historically known for its cultural richness and economic significance. It is experiencing a shift towards entrepreneurship as a driver for local development. The region has a longstanding tradition in trade and agriculture, and with growing interest in innovation and technology-based enterprises, the startup ecosystem in Madhesh Province is now beginning to emerge.
While the development of IC and the entrepreneurial landscape in Madhesh Province is still in its nascent stages, there are promising signs of progress. A significant boost to the region’s entrepreneurial landscape comes from ICIMOD’s involvement with a local-level consortium, including the government, in establishing an IC focused on green, resilient, and inclusive startups. Birgunj, an important trade city with a key role in cross-border exchange with India, has taken the lead and committed to allocating land for the establishment of IC. Other cities in the province have yet to make similar commitments. This initiative in Birgunj is expected to foster startups and transform Madhesh into an entrepreneurship and innovation hub, addressing unemployment across all community segments.
The initiative supports the development of a startup ecosystem aligned with the fourth industrial revolution principles. This also includes setting up centres known as Rojgar Kendra or employment centres, which are organisations or government offices that provide job placement services, vocational training, and other resources to help people find employment.
Opportunities like the national Startup Nation 2030 conference have also influenced laying out a roadmap for advancing entrepreneurship within the province. Seeing the success of the national conference, a provincial-level event was held in Birgunj. Over 100 Nepali organisations participated in the event with an aim to transform Madhesh Province’s entrepreneurial landscape.
The entrepreneurial spirit in Madhesh is pervasive, driven by a young and dynamic population eager to harness new opportunities. The provincial and municipal governments in Madhesh are yet to implement dedicated activities like the establishment of IC and innovation labs (physical hubs for co-creating and nurturing entrepreneurial ideas), highlighting that, although plans exist, their implementation is still at a nascent stage. This presents both a challenge and an opportunity for focused development in the region.
The future of Madhesh’s entrepreneurial ecosystem hinges on the synergetic integration of three key components: the incubation centre (backed by the government, development partners like ICIMOD, FNCCI, and local leadership), innovation hubs, and Rojgar Kendras.
IC serves as the cornerstone, providing mentorship and resources. Innovation labs will act as creative spaces for idea generation, experimentation, and prototyping of new solutions, particularly addressing local development and market challenges. Rojgar Kendras will ensure a steady flow of skilled talent by bridging the gap between job seekers and startups. This integrated approach can position Madhesh to transform into a vibrant entrepreneurial hub, fostering innovation, creating employment opportunities, and driving sustainable economic growth. Success will depend on continued leadership commitment, effective implementation of supportive policies, and sustained collaboration between the government, private sectors, academia, and international organisations.
“Sometimes I wonder, are we born only to drown?”
Anju Jha, President, Mandwi, a non-governmental organisation from Nepal
This haunting quote is a lived reality for communities in the flood-prone plains of the Madhesh province in southern Nepal. Every monsoon, as the bright sky under the Terai’s scorching sun is darkened by the monsoon clouds, the people of Madhesh prepare not with relief, but with fear. The Lal Bakaiya River, flowing through Madhesh’s Rautahat and Bara districts, is prone to flooding, where floodwaters are an unwelcome annual visitor for communities.
Floods in the Lal Bakaiya River are a recurring crisis, triggered by a combination of extreme monsoon rainfall, fragile upstream terrain, and unplanned development. Nepal receives up to 80% of its annual rainfall during the monsoon, particularly in the Chure hills, where steep slopes and weak geology cause massive erosion and sediment flow. These sediments settle in the Terai plains, raising riverbeds and reducing the river’s capacity to carry water, which increases the risk of overbank flooding.
At the same time, anthropogenic activities such as settlements along riverbanks, encroachment, and poorly designed infrastructure like embankments have disrupted natural drainage systems. As a result, floodwaters now linger for longer periods, turning what were once short-lived floods into prolonged disasters.
The Lal Bakaiya watershed in Madhesh province faces a dual water crisis: it receives too much water during the monsoon (June–August) and not enough water during the dry period (March–May). “In the summer, we run out of water for drinking, irrigation, and daily use. But during monsoon, we have enough to drown in.” says Anju Jha. This paradox illustrates the intensity of climate extremes faced by the communities here.
Several districts in the Madhesh province lie just below the Chure hills, a fragile ecological belt that covers 13% of Nepal’s total area and is rapidly degrading. Torrential rain in the upper catchments, combined with soil erosion and siltation, results in flash floods downstream.
For downstream communities, like in Rautahat, even when rainfall is not excessively local, erratic upstream rainfall leads to flooding. Over the years, this has led to a significant rise in riverbed levels, further increasing the risk of inundation. Anthropogenic activities also contribute to turning this hazard into a disaster.
“There have been many changes in the floods we receive throughout the years. There were no dams in the past. In the past, we used to get flooded, and that would last for one or two days. But now, we still get flooded, but there is no way for the water to escape. We are left inundated for weeks.” says Banthi Pashwan, a local community member.
This year, the Monsoon Outlook published by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has forecasted above-average rainfall across the country. While not specific to Lal Bakaiya, the implications are clear: degraded watersheds, changing land use, and weak infrastructure will amplify flood risks unless addressed urgently.
To address this growing threat, ICIMOD is piloting community-based approaches, especially the Community-Based Early Flood Warnings System (CBFEWS). The CBFEWS is an early warning tool that detects floods and helps spread alerts quickly within the community so people can take timely action.
This pre-monsoon season, to enhance community response capabilities and build resilience, ICIMOD, under the “Building capabilities for green, climate-resilient and inclusive development” (HI-GRID) project, supported by the Government of Australia, partnered with Mandwi, a non-profit organisation located in Rautahat, Nepal, to conduct flood preparedness training in the flood-prone Lal Bakaiya watershed. The session aimed to strengthen the resilience of vulnerable communities through practical knowledge and early action.
What made this year special was our partnership with the Disaster Education Promotion Office (DEPO), Nepal, to gamify the training modules. By using gamification, the training encouraged active participation from everyone, young and old, men and women alike. Participants learned how to respond to rising floodwaters, coordinate emergency alerts, and evacuate safely. For many, it was their first time taking part in such an interactive simulation. This new approach turned essential knowledge into practical, life-saving action in an engaging and memorable way.
The gamification concept helped simplify disaster concepts, especially for low-literacy communities, making the training more effective and memorable. The sessions included real-life demonstrations, first aid, and rescue techniques, which strengthened local capacities to respond to flood emergencies ahead of the monsoon. While efforts were made to ensure inclusivity, female participation was low, especially in Rajdevi municipality. Appointing female trainers or organising women-only sessions could help in increasing participation.
The Government of Nepal also continues to prioritise flood risk reduction as part of its national disaster preparedness strategy. According to Deepak Marahatta, President of DEPO, policies are made through committees such as the ward disaster management committees (WDMC) regarding early warning and disaster preparedness. However, on-ground challenges remain, particularly the need for long-term watershed protection and upstream land-use management, especially in the Chure region.
The flood risk in Madhesh cannot be solved through early warnings alone. While important early warnings deal with the symptoms, not the causes. What is needed is an integrated watershed management plan with an integrated flood risk management approach that considers the upstream-downstream linkages, integrates land, water, and ecosystem management, and balances conservation with development.
ICIMOD is working with local governments in the Lal Bakaiya watershed to develop such a plan to tackle the region’s ‘Too Much Too Little (TMTL)’ water challenge – a condition of alternating floods and water scarcity for the region. The approach will combine scientific assessment, community knowledge, and cross-sectoral collaboration to identify root causes of watershed degradation and implement sustainable solutions. The watershed management plan will help decision-makers at the ward, municipal, and river basin levels to understand the watershed’s current status, identify key challenges, risks, and opportunities, and leverage investments for the watershed management plan in the short- and long-term. In the long run, these measures would reduce upstream degradation by providing a mix of locally relevant solutions, with institutional backing.
Communities in Madhesh are not passive victims. They are learning, adapting, and leading. Non-governmental organisations like Mandwi are advocating for water equity, climate justice, and locally rooted solutions. ICIMOD supports this work through science-based interventions, nature-based solutions, and regional cooperation.
But to break the flood cycle and ensure future generations are not ‘born to drown,’ we need a collective, cross-sectoral response. “Early warning systems are effective, but to truly reduce the impact of flood risk in downstream communities, we must enhance flood management efforts in the upstream Chure hills, the source of these rivers”, says Sanjay, Red Cross, Gaur, Nepal. Additionally, it is equally important to scale up the early warning system and mainstream it into national disaster strategies.
Transparency is more than just a buzzword in the fight against climate change around the world. It is what builds trust, credibility, and ambition. Climate pledges and promises are meaningless if there is no follow-through. With a transparency framework, countries can keep track of their progress, improve their policies, and work together more effectively. That is why the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF), one of the central pillars of the Paris Agreement, is very important, especially for more vulnerable areas, like the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH).
But what is the ETF? And how could the HKH countries benefit from it?
Article 13 of the Paris Agreement established the ETF and builds on earlier efforts to make things more transparent and clearer, like the measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) arrangements under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where countries systematically track, report, and having their climate actions assessed to ensure progress towards their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
The ETF is ‘enhanced’ because it has a single set of rules and expectations for all countries, no matter how developed they are. It also has built-in flexibility for countries that need it in light of their capacities, with special consideration to least developed countries (LDCs) and small island developing states (SIDS).
Starting from December 2024, countries are required to submit their progress report on climate action and support [formally referred to as Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs)] as part of the ETF. These reports contain:
These reports are reviewed by technical experts. They also go through a multilateral process where countries can talk about each other's progress in a constructive way. This approach ensures that climate action is not only happening, but that it is also being shared and understood in a way that everyone can see, learn, and compare.
In short, the ETF asks each country:
The HKH is warming at twice the global average. It is home to more than 240 million people and is a vital source of water, biodiversity, and climate regulation, and provides vital ecosystem services to nearly 2 billion people downstream. Glaciers are melting, monsoon patterns are changing, and communities are having more floods, droughts, and landslides. But a lot of countries in the HKH region have trouble keeping track of and reporting on climate action because they do not have enough technical skills, their institutions are too spread out, and they do not have all the data they need.
Hence, ETF is not only vital but also necessary for the HKH:
The ETF is more than just turning in information and reports, and meeting deadlines. It is about putting together the systems, skills, and partnerships that make climate action work. It's a chance for countries to look at where they are, identify gaps, mobilise resources, and build momentum for climate responses that are ambitious, smarter, and more inclusive.
Given extreme vulnerability to climate change, and to build momentum and trust on climate action, ICIMOD is working with the UNFCCC secretariat to help countries make the most of the ETF by building capacity, creating a regional knowledge hub, and promoting peer learning and knowledge sharing. It is also about helping countries become climate champions, embracing science, working together for ambitious climate actions in the light of the harsh realities of life in the mountains.
When I was young, I was often told that nature is the ultimate classroom, but somewhere along the way, I lost that childlike wonder that comes from surrendering to nature. However, my expedition to the permafrost region of western Bhutan has rekindled that dormant curiosity, reminding me never to cease questioning, nor to relent in the pursuit of answers. I have previously written about my encounter with a yak herder, which led me down an unexpected path to explore the possible links between permafrost and cordyceps. This time, I find myself eager to recount an encounter with a creature far smaller but fascinating- the Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana).
Allow me to introduce this snout, burrowing giant rodent of the high mountains, a creature whose existence is entwined with the frozen earth it burrows. This was another encounter which sent me spiralling not into a rabbit hole, as they say, but a marmot hole, dragging me deep into the study of their habitat and another possible relationship with the permafrost.
What piqued my interest was a fresh mound of soil on a sloping patch of ground, about 50 meters away from the campsite. It was evening, we had just completed deploying permafrost sensors, and my teammates were on their way back to their camp to retire for the day. I had time on my side to feed my curiosity.
I climbed up the slope to investigate. The mound consisted of fine, freshly excavated soil, leading into a burrow about 10-15 cm in diameter. Intrigued, I scanned the area and noticed a network of similar mounds scattered across the terrain.
As I moved from one mound to another, I came across faeces in one of the burrows – clear signs of the one that burrows, but I have yet to be honoured with the glimpse of what it looks like. As I studied the burrow network, a question struck me: Am I looking at the work of brilliant engineers of the frozen landscape beneath them?
Eager to confirm my suspicions, I rushed back to camp to share my find and describe the scene. But apparently, my teammates were not new to these scenes. Karma Toeb, a veteran of these mountain slopes, immediately recognised the mounds and burrows. "These are Himalayan marmot burrows," he said, swiping through his phone to show me photographs from past expeditions. I leaned in, fascinated by the sturdy, fur-covered creatures captured in his shots, their body peeking out from burrow entrances.
Himalayan Marmot, as I learn, is the largest high-altitude rodent, primarily found in the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. On IUCN’s Red List, it is classified as the ‘Least Concern’ species due to its wide geographic distribution, but this seemingly friendly creature’s role in ecosystems deserves respect. They serve as prey for endangered species like snow leopards, aerate soil for plant growth, and their sinkholes enhance groundwater recharge.
But for me, their habitat was intriguing: dry, open areas with short grasses at altitudes ranging from 3,000 to 5,500 meters above sea level. This is precisely the altitude range where permafrost is likely present in the Himalayas.
Permafrost is defined as ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. It plays a critical role in maintaining ground stability by binding soil and rock and supports hydrological processes by regulating subsurface water flow and seasonal melt in high-altitude regions. Thawing permafrost can trigger landslides, land degradation, and the release of sediment and carbon, and likely change the hydrological regime, impacting the environment and local communities. Despite its importance, mountain permafrost remains one of the most overlooked components of the cryosphere in the Hindu Kush Himalaya.
Marmots spend most of the winter hibernating in their burrows, which need to remain dry and insulated from extreme cold and frozen ground. This behaviour suggests several possible relationships between marmots and permafrost. Below are some questions to explore:
In summary, as climate warming pushes permafrost boundaries upward, Himalayan marmots, through their burrowing habits, might serve as a biological indicator of permafrost changes or even contribute to permafrost thaw by disturbing the ground. These connections present fascinating, yet complex, research questions that deserve further exploration. This field observation provided a fresh perspective on the intricate relationships between wildlife and the cryosphere in the high Himalayas – a topic that, in my view, merits much deeper investigation.
Lying on opposite banks of the Mechi River, the Naxalbari block (of West Bengal) in eastern India and the Jhapa district of eastern Nepal are en route to the Mahananda-Kolabari-Mechi transboundary passage for elephants in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Both locations witness regular elephant incursions damaging properties and destroying crop fields. The latter is a matter of grave concern, especially for the smallholder farmers on both sides of the river.
When their paddy and maize crops ripen, the farmers spend nights guarding the crop from elephants. Traditionally, they would build makeshift elevated structures of bamboo or tarpaulin near their crop fields to serve as watchtowers. But these structures can barely withstand the often-turned-lethal human-elephant conflicts, not to mention the exposure to snake and insect bites.
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) collaborated with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) to construct six concrete-built watchtowers in the Naxalbari block to provide safe and durable vantage points to local farmers for guarding their crops. This endeavour took off with ICIMOD Director General, Pema Gyamtsho, officially launching the construction of a new watchtower on 4 October 2024.
The new watchtowers are an architectural novelty to these remote locations that are predominantly reliant on temporary polyethene, wood or bamboo structures to serve the purpose of (crop) surveillance. The new towers, in contrast, can provide additional facilities such as solar-powered LED lights, and emergency shelters (with kitchens and safe storage spaces) to the villagers during elephant raids, besides being sturdy and better-elevated observation towers vis-à-vis the temporary structures. Voluntary involvement of the villagers -be it in guarding the construction sites from vandalism or in helping to cure concrete structures for durability - during the construction of the new watchtowers spoke volumes of how strongly they felt the need for such facilities that can potentially provide more safety and security for lives, livelihoods and property.
In fact, local communities had strongly expressed the need for tenable solutions to manage the risks of human-elephant conflicts at the various consultation sessions co-organised by ICIMOD and ATREE for piloting strategies for human-elephant coexistence. In tandem, ICIMOD partnered with local authorities on both India and Nepal sides in initiatives to nudge changes in community attitudes and behaviour toward managing elephant incursions.
In the Naxalbari block, for instance, the local authorities complemented ICIMOD’s initiatives by installing solar irrigation pumps to encourage farmers into growing alternative crops less attractive to elephants, and by placing solar streetlights in the vulnerable settlements to reduce accidental human-elephant encounters. Three solar irrigation pump sets and 40 solar streetlights were installed with funding support from the Department of Water Resources Investigation and Development (DWRID), Government of West Bengal and the Naxalbari Block Development Office, respectively.
The local government also allocated funds for setting up market stalls where farmers can sell the alternative crops and launched habitat restoration projects. These efforts have encouraged many farmers to resume farming that they had stopped in apprehension of elephant raids.
Just across the Mechi river, farmers in Bahundangi village of the Jhapa district of Nepal can also harvest their crops without fearing heavy economic losses due to elephant encounters, now. Thanks to the seasonal fences installed with ICIMOD’s support. Simultaneously, ICIMOD has succeeded in fostering widespread awareness about human-elephant ‘co-existence’ through a range of initiatives starting from the inclusion of lessons on coexistence in school curriculum to supporting the Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) for managing human-elephant encounters so that the villagers can do away with hostile practices like using firecrackers to scare off elephants.
There is a positive perceptual change among the local communities – elephants are now treated as animals displaced by shrinking habitats and dwindling food sources, rather than as ‘incursors to be thwarted’. From a hotspot of human-elephant conflicts, Bahundangi is now Mechinagar municipality’s ‘model village’ of human-elephant coexistence.
With best practice cases like Naxalbari and Bahundangi on hand, ICIMOD is pursuing a holistic approach that pools together a combination of proactive initiatives such as, the construction of durable, multi-functional watchtowers, encouraging farmers in adopting crops less appealing to elephants, capacity building for human-wildlife sensitisation, advocacy and monitoring, leveraging government support, and nudging changes in community attitudes towards managing human-elephant encounters. These complementary actions are shaping up an ethos of human-wildlife coexistence along the Mechi River corridor of the eastern Himalayan foothills.
Air pollution remains one of the most persistent and pressing challenges in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. The region is caught in a recurring cycle of toxic air, with pollution levels peaking twice a year, between October to November and from March to April. March–April pollution surge is largely driven by widespread forest fires, which have been increasing each year due to drier winters, creating a layer of tiny particles, obstructing the visibility called haze. This haze can be composed of various particles, including dust, smoke, aerosols, and smog. For the October–November period, the pollution spike is largely attributed to agricultural residue burning across the Indo Gangetic Plains (IGP) countries, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, as farmers prepare their fields for the next cropping cycle. Although these burnings are localised, their effects are widespread, affecting the HKH region with adverse environmental, socio-economic, and health consequences.
November 2024 recorded PM2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less) air pollutant concentrations exceeding 500 µg/m3 in Lahore, Pakistan, and New Delhi, India, as recorded by AirNow. Peak haze (slight obscuration of the lower atmosphere) and air pollution levels occurred in mid-November 2025, aligning with burning activity. The haze then moved eastward across the IGP, with rising PM2.5 concentrations in downstream cities. Dhaka, Bangladesh, recorded a noticeable rise in particulate pollution following November 12, indicating regional movement of the air pollutants. This spatial and temporal pattern confirms that the agricultural residue-driven haze events contribute to air pollution across the IGP region.
From the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imaging data, we can see how the haze over the region decreases as the crop burning period ends. In early November 2025, satellite data captured a thick haze spreading across the IGP. Between November 4 and 7, over 1,250 active fires were recorded, indicating widespread agricultural residue burning. The haze persisted through the month, peaking in intensity toward the end of November. Although cloud cover briefly masked the smoke in NASA imagery, the haze became visible again by the first week of December. As fire activity declined to just under 200 counts, visibility improved noticeably.
The pattern tells a clear story: more stubble (agricultural residue) burning leads to heavier haze. The data reinforce what is increasingly evident: agricultural fires are a major contributor to regional air pollution, with serious consequences for health and the environment.
In the broader context of climate change and air pollution impacts, it is unfair to highlight agricultural residue burning without acknowledging pollution from road traffic and industries. However, the challenge of agricultural residue burning persists and remains a significant contributor to air pollution. While its impact may be smaller compared to other sources, it is an issue that can be addressed through coordinated efforts involving the government, the private sector, and farmers.
Unfortunately, discussions on agricultural residue burning, air pollution, and health impacts often overlook the struggles of farmers. Farmers' continued reliance on burning stubble, particularly in the IGP, is driven by a complex interplay of cultural norms, economic constraints, labour shortages, and tight timelines between crop cycles. The practice of burning is perceived as a quick and cost-effective way to clear large volumes of agricultural residues for the next crop season. In most parts of the IGP, wheat is planted right after rice is harvested, within approximately 20 days.
Stubble burning persists due to several challenges, including limited awareness among farmers about its environmental and health impacts, and the widespread myth that burning returns nutrients to the soil. While subsidies exist, tools like straw choppers and balers remain costly and out of reach for many small-scale farmers. Weak market linkages for stubble, especially paddy straw, further reduce motivation for sustainable management. The transitions to alternatives for agricultural residue burning remain hindered by inadequate and fragmented policy support, particularly limited financial incentives and weak market development are making adoption difficult for farmers and stakeholders.
There are promising solutions, such as affordable residue management technologies to policy innovations and community-led initiatives that are showing real potential to reduce stubble burning and improve air quality.
The innovative approach of turning agricultural residue into pellets is emerging as an ambitious alternative to burning fossil fuels, creating more green jobs, improving soil health and air quality, and a home-grown economy resulting in lesser dependency on fossil fuel imports. Converting the paddy stubble into high-density pellets reduces agricultural residue burning and helps in combating the associated air pollution by substituting fossil fuel in the industries, which further thrives the clean and green environment. The integration of agricultural residues into the energy matrix can enhance energy security and diversification of energy sources. As global energy demands increase, the reliance on traditional energy sources can pose risks to energy security.
While pelletisation is promising, there are challenges, such as transportation and storage costs, and availability of pelletisation facilities. Besides, only a handful of machinery is deployed at available pelletisation facilities, so not all farmers have access to such machinery. These factors contribute to farmers' hesitation to adopt pelleting, despite awareness.
There are also other sustainable agricultural residue management practices where agricultural residues are left in the field to naturally decompose, which improves soil health and fertility over time. Unlike burning, this approach reduces environmental pollution and enhances productivity through methods like mulching, no-till farming, and crop rotation. This approach is encouraged as studies show they can boost cereal grain yields by up to 37% and significantly cut soil erosion and carbon emissions. However, adoption remains limited due to low farmer awareness, lack of machinery access, and competing uses for residues such as livestock fodder.
Biochar is the other promising ex-situ solution for managing agricultural residue, where biomass residue is converted into carbon-rich materials to use as fertiliser in the field. This addresses the residue disposal issue while improving soil fertility, productivity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Studies show biochar can increase average yields by 11% and cut 12% of human-induced emissions annually. However, high production costs and variable performance limit widespread adoption. Collaborations with research institutions and international bodies, along with strong policy support, are essential to improve production standards, build capacity, and make biochar a viable tool for sustainable agriculture and climate action.
Scaling up the agricultural residue management solutions will require government support to get them off the ground. The issue of low supply of the paddy straw stubble used in the productive sector is addressed through the awareness and capacity building of farmers, but the effort is insufficient. Thus, IGP countries' strict regulations, such as mandatory enforcement of agro residue-based biomass pellets in the co-firing, and 7–20% use in thermal power plants and brick kilns could advance the scaling up of pelletisation. This enforcement would create significant market demand for the paddy straw pellets, attracting interested investors to get engaged in the paddy straw-based pellet production.
Managing agricultural residue needs to be heavily subsidised to offset related costs. Countries in the IGP are increasingly opting for strict rules to control open agricultural residue burning. In India, the open burning of agricultural residue can be reported as a crime. With farmers facing threats of fines and imprisonment, it has become almost impossible to engage in constructive dialogue, and it has further alienated the farming community. A more effective approach to rewarding farmers for not burning agricultural residue can foster collaboration and cooperation.
Control agricultural residue burning and solving the smog and haze problem will require putting farmers at the centre of the conversation. Innovation and policy commitment, along with strong monitoring tools, are the keys to cleaner air and a healthier environment.
Understanding and addressing farmers’ challenges is only the beginning. The available solutions are showing promise in addressing the current haze crisis, but these are not standalone or long-term solutions. The need to invest in research and development to explore more sustainable alternatives is ever pressing. Long-term solutions must address the cause, and not just manage symptoms.
The World Meteorological Organisation’s (WMO) State of the Climate in Asia 2024 report predicts worsening repercussions of climate extremes in Asia, warming twice as fast as the global average. The findings of the report corroborate ICIMOD’s 2025 HKH Snow Update and 2025 Monsoon Outlook, both forecasting escalating likelihood of (water-related) calamities for the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region of Asia, in particular.
Continent ‘hit hard by rising temperatures and extreme weather’, states the United Nations’ authority on climate, weather, and water, as weather extremes ranging from prolonged heatwaves, and droughts, to rain cause “havoc”, “heavy casualties”, “destruction” and “heavy economic and agricultural losses” across the continent.
While floods in Asia in 2024 were among the most severe precipitation-related events recorded since 1949, 4.8 million people were affected by drought in China in 2024, Myanmar set a new temperature record of 48.2ºC, and the Urumqi Glacier No.1 in China’s Eastern Tian Shan recorded most negative mass balance since records began in 1959, among other calamities.
In the HKH region, 23 out of 24 High Mountain Asia glaciers show continued mass loss. Reduced winter snowfall and extreme summer heat intensified losses in most of Nepal, Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in China and Sikkim in India, among other high-altitude areas in the central Himalayas.
The WMO report finds a belt of below-average snow cover extent (SCE) from western to eastern parts of Asia, with negative SCE anomalies dominating the central and the middle Himalayas in 2024. In tandem, ICIMOD’s 2025 HKH Snow Update, finds November 2024 – March 2025 to be the vicennial-record-low snow season in the HKH with a snow persistence of -23.6%, besides being the third consecutive year of negative snow anomaly in the region. Persisting and alarming extents of anomalies are observed in river basins like Mekong (-51.9%), Brahmaputra (-27.9%), Yangtze (-26.3%), Ganges (-24.1%), Amu Darya (-18.8%), Indus (-16.0%), where seasonal snow melts are crucial for agriculture, hydropower generation and other critical ecosystem services.
Sher Muhammad, Remote Sensing Specialist at ICIMOD says, “These observations largely coincide with what is being seen across the HKH region as well. Seasonal snowmelt contributes approximately 25 % of annual river flows on average across the HKH, rising even higher in western basins—yet continual snow deficits are eroding this critical source, triggering early-summer water shortages, heat stress, and worry among downstream communities.”
This is worrying news for countries like China and Afghanistan, already exposed to long-term water stress and droughts conditions. According to the WMO report, in 2024 Western and south-western Afghanistan saw more frequent sand and dust storms than average, possibly linked to long-term drought conditions. On the other hand, the Yunnan and southern Sichuan Provinces in China experienced both winter and spring droughts, while in August 2024, drought intensified in Sichuan, the Yangtze River, and Chongqing – leading to economic losses of 2.89 billion Yuan. Persistently below-normal precipitation being a key driver of these droughts.
While WMO reports considerable variation in precipitation anomalies in 2024 - Pakistan’s southwestern province of Balochistan and Myanmar’s Irrawaddy delta experiencing above-normal rainfall vis-à-vis China’s Altyn-Tagh and Kunlun Mountains between the Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim Basin, along with Pakistan’s western Himalayas and Afghanistan’s Hindu Kush mountains recording below-normal precipitations – ICIMOD’s 2025 Monsoon Outlook predicts a wetter and hotter summer monsoon between June and September 2025 for most of the HKH countries, with the 2024 hotspots of rainfall anomalies, as identified in the WMO report, remaining unchanged.
Nepal, for instance, that saw incidents of mudslides, waterlogging and sedimentation, and faced significant damages and economic losses due to excess rainfall in 2024, is again likely to receive above-average rainfall this year, along with India, China’s TAR and most of Pakistan (a country also imperiled by precipitation-induced floods in 2024). On the other hand, among countries / areas predicted to experience below average rainfall is the already drought-affected Afghanistan with severe dryness likely to persist in its western parts.
Simultaneously, the Monsoon Outlook predicts temperature anomalies in South Asia, including the HKH, to range between 0.5⁰ and 2⁰C above the long term-average, during June - September 2025. This prediction comes on the back of WMO’s report of frequent incidents of heatwave outbreaks across China, India and Myanmar in 2024, alongside sea-surface temperature rise in Asia at nearly double the global mean rate.
With the findings from all these reports pointing to the ever-heightening propensity of climate extremes and catastrophes in the HKH region under the irreversible effects of accelerating climate change, anticipatory lifesaving and support actions are the need of the hour. Work of national meteorological and hydrological services and their partners is becoming “more important than ever”, states WMO Secretary General, Professor Celeste Saulo, in this context.
According to Saswata Sanyal, Disaster Risk Reduction Lead, “The WMO report rightly emphasises the urgent need for anticipatory action in the face of escalating climate-induced disasters. This proactive approach is crucial for anticipating and mitigating disaster impacts before they fully unfold. ICIMOD recently joined the Intergovernmental Organizations' Cooperation on Anticipatory Action to further 'acting ahead of a predicted hazardous event to prevent or reduce impacts on lives and livelihoods and humanitarian needs' across HKH. This will directly empower communities to take necessary actions against the increasing threats of heavy rainfall, flash floods, and other water-related hazards in the region.”
Reminiscing the devastating impact of the 2024 monsoon floods on the communities from Kathmandu to the floodplains in Terai, Neera Shrestha Pradhan, Cryosphere and Water Lead at ICIMOD, highlights ICIMOD’s proactive moves towards strengthening anticipatory actions, “ICIMOD is contributing to the global EW4All initiative, aligning with its four pillars—ranging from investing in nature-based solutions to mitigating flood impacts, to ensuring localised and community-based responses. Recognising that early warning alone is not enough, ICIMOD is working to strengthen anticipatory early action and preparedness by fostering collaboration between communities and local governments. We are also working with partners to pilot gamification of training approaches — making learning more interactive, and impactful. These efforts aim to build lasting resilience in the face of increasing flood events and multi-hazard risks in our region.”
WMO’s State of the Climate in Asia 2024 coincides with 2025 Bonn Climate Change Conference (SB62), a crucial mid-year meeting for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), from June 16 to June 26 in Bonn, Germany. This is a preparatory event for the upcoming COP30 in Belém, Brazil, with particular emphasis on adaptation and setting the agenda for COP30.
Read the full press release here: https://www.icimod.org/press-release/state-of-the-climate-in-asia-2024-icimod-response-to-wmo-flagship-report/
The Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring System (FFDMS) of the Nepal Government’s Ministry of Forest and Environment, detected around 1300 forest fire cases in the country just in a month-long span between 5 March and 5April. However, the number of daily forest fire outbreaks saw sudden spikes since 21March, albeit with some day-to-day fluctuations (Figure 1).
Simultaneously, a rapid assessment of the air quality data obtained from the Khumaltar air quality monitoring station in Lalitpur during this one-month period, revealed severe deterioration in air quality between March 21 and April 5 with levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) altering from 35–170 μgm-3 and carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations ranging from 0.3–1.5 ppm; this is vis-à-vis the situation between 5-20 March (both PM2.5 and CO levels showing lower variability , ranging between 40 - 85 μgm-3 and 0.4 - 0.6 ppm, respectively) (Fig 2, left panel).
The mean PM2.5 concentration for 21 March - 5 April was measured at 97.2 µgm-³, almost 1.5 times higher than the measured value of 65.9 µgm-³ for 5 March - 20 March. The mean CO concentration, on the other hand, was measured at 0.8 ppm for 21 March - 5 April , almost 60 percent higher than the mean value (0.5 ppm) for the preceding fifteen days. (Fig 2, right panel). Such high levels of concentration of pollutants, PM2.5 in particular, increase the risk of cardiopulmonary diseases as well as all-cause mortality.
While the US Government’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) MODIS satellite images corroborated with the drastic change in the forest fire situation between 21 March and 5 April with fire incidents being more prevalent over time and space, it also revealed higher spatial concentration of the fire hotspots in the western/southwestern side of the Kathmandu valley (Figure 3)).
To be noted in this context, that nearly 26% outbreaks were detected in the Madesh province, 25% in Bagmati, 16% in Koshi, 14% in Lumbini and 18% cumulatively in the Gandaki, Karnali, and Sudurpashchim provinces, respectively.
The FFDMS data, on the other hand, shows only one localised case of forest fire in the valley (at Lalitpur) itself during this month-long phase, while several major fire hotspots – for instance, Chitawan (147 events), Makawanpur (110 events), Sindhuli (49 events) in the Bagmati province itself, or Parsa (174), Udayapur (77), Dang (54), in the adjacent Madhesh, Koshi, and Lumbini provinces, respectively - were detected at over 100 kilometres away from the valley.
With smoke plumes often rising to 4000-5000 metres, way beyond the typical planetary boundary layer in the region, forest fires are known for increasing the chances of long-range transport of emissions like carbon monoxide (CO), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone precursors.
But how does the transport and dispersion of the pollutants occur? Empirical analysis of the process is relatively scare. Thus, to get an empirical perspective of it, especially during this year’s coinciding phase of severe air pollution in the Kathmandu valley and raging forest fire outbreaks across Nepal, we used the Khumaltar station as our receptor location for monitoring the source, transport and dispersion of pollutants in the local air1.
Forest fires from dried vegetations usually intensify during the pre-monsoon months in the southern Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) foothills (of India, Nepal and Bhutan) as well as at higher altitudes close to the cryosphere, due to dry weather conditions extending through the winter season. With longer spells of dry weather conditions becoming common in the region under the exacerbating effects of climate change, forest fires also have amplified in frequency, scale and intensity over the past ten years or so.
This years’ fierce pre-monsoon forest fires in Nepal, for instance, came on the heels of a drier-than-normal winter season - Nepal received only nine per cent of the average winter rainfall by 23 January , 2025, and the HKH region, in general, saw record-low winter snowpack this winter – and an advanced drought warning from the National Agricultural Drought Watch.
But it is the local meteorological condition, such as wind direction and velocity, atmospheric pressure and humidity etc. in the Kathmandu valley, that appears to play a crucial role in the dispersal of the pollutants.
Using pollution rose plots, we visualised CO and PM2.5 concentrations together with wind direction between 5-20 March and 21 March 21 – 5 April, respectively. Our analysis revealed that the frequency of winds from the southern direction increased during the fortnight of escalating fire outbreaks, coupled with a rise in the percentage of calm conditions from 10% to 15%, respectively. In tandem, both average CO and PM2.5 concentrations in the valley’s air increased by 64% (from 0.49 ppm between 5-20 March 5 to 0.82 ppm between 21 March and 5 April) and 47% (from 65.94 µgm-³ between 5-20 March to 97.2 µgm-³ between 21 March and 5 April), respectively (see Figs. 4 and 5).
Simultaneously, we used the hybrid single-particle Lagrangian integrated trajectory (HYSPLIT) model - a standard tool for simulating transport and dispersion of air pollutants – to track the source and movement of emissions to the valley during the severe pollution days, during the forest fire period.
A 48-hour backward trajectory analysis for identifying the sources of the emissions influencing daily air quality at the receptor location indicated that during the most polluted days pollutant sources showed higher likelihood of association with locations in the west/southwest of the valley where the forest fires were spatially concentrated.
The 48-hour backward trajectory for March 8, one of the days of relatively lower PM2.5 concentration in our month-long monitoring phase, traced incoming winds mainly from south/southeast sides of the valley. In contrast, the trajectory for 2 April, when high PM2.5 concentration was detected in the receptor location air, traced incoming winds from the forest fire prone western / southwest sides of the valley (Fig 6 top panels).
The findings from a 120-hour backward trajectory analysis for the frequency of airmass trajectories from long-distance emission sources are consistent with the surface wind patterns traced by the 48-hour back trajectories, thereby corroborating with long-range transport of emissions to the Kathmandu valley from distant sources, during severe forest fire episodes.
The 120-hour trajectory analysis, during the coinciding peak phases of pollution and forest fires, revealed higher frequency of incoming air masses from fire-affected regions outside of the valley, and hence higher likelihood of long-range transport of pollutants in the valley. In contrast, the pre-peak-fire period analysis showed higher frequency of surface winds that are more likely to bring in localised pollutants (Fig 6, bottom panels).
Bhutan’s agriculture sector – one that employs 40% of the population - is confronted with significant climate-related challenges visible in terms of change in rainfall patterns and fast drying up of spring water sources (UNDP, 2023)[1]. Owing to this and other structural challenges, the sector’s contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been steadily declining, threatening the country’s self-sufficiency in staple crops.
In Bhutan’s 13th Five Year Pan (13 FYP), agriculture and livestock sector are prioritised as one of the growth drivers to enhance food and nutrition security, elevate farmers’ income, and increase the sector’s contribution to GDP by investing in improving irrigation and water supply through innovative solutions to improve farm productivity. However, only 20% of cultivable land is irrigated, highlighting a critical gap in agricultural productivity. Only a small portion is effectively utilised, primarily through outdated, open-channel, gravity-fed systems. These are highly vulnerable to climate variability, resulting in reduced crop yields, more fallow land, and increased reliance on food imports. The country’s mountainous terrain further complicates irrigation, often requiring water to be lifted from rivers at lower elevations to fields at higher altitudes – an energy-intensive and logistically complex task.
Given Bhutan’s abundant green energy resource, expanding irrigation and water supply infrastructure by harnessing renewable energy (RE)-powered irrigation solutions, supported by a solid governance structure and mechanism reflecting the local context, could play a transformative role in addressing these challenges. By using renewable energy solutions, for e.g. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems to pump water uphill, Bhutan can ensure year-round, reliable irrigation and water access, reduce labour burdens, especially on women, and enhance food security, income, and climate resilience. Further, deployment of RE-powered lift systems can potentially address drinking water challenges with appropriate treatments. It’s a game-changing intersection of technology, equity, and sustainability.
Integrating renewable energy (RE)-powered lift irrigation systems into non-energy sectors such as agriculture requires strong collaboration and engagement across multiple agencies. These solutions are inherently complex and demand a comprehensive understanding of various interrelated factors – including supportive policies and regulations, the energy supply-demand landscape, hydrology and precipitation patterns, river systems, socio-economic and cultural contexts, climatic variability, performance of water supply systems, agricultural practices, electro-mechanical systems, market dynamics, market access, and environmental risks. In essence, it is a multidisciplinary endeavour that requires a coordinated and cross-sectoral approach.
Taking RE-powered irrigation solutions to a large scale – whether for agriculture or public water supply – further amplifies the complexity due to the involvement of multiple institutions with either diverse or overlapping mandates and governance demands.
To address this and guide the development of an integrated approach to mainstream the uptake of RE-powered lift irrigation in Bhutan, a project advisory committee (PAC) was established through the WERELIS–Bhutan project (Women Empowerment through Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Powered Decentralised Lift Irrigation Systems) supported by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Chaired by the director general of the Department of Energy, Royal Government of Bhutan, the seven-member committee includes senior-level representatives from the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Water, the Department of Infrastructure Development, the Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and ICIMOD. This committee provides strategic guidance and oversight for implementing RE-powered lift irrigation systems, such as the WERELIS Project, and ensures the development of an enabling cross-sectoral approach.
"Every agency has its own mandate, policy, and planning framework. The biggest challenge is the fragmentation of responsibilities and accountability. More often than not, this leads to bottlenecks in implementation. The PAC is a critical mechanism that can bridge these institutional silos"
states Karma Penjor Dorji, Director General, Department of Energy, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan
On 23 May 2025, the Project Advisory Committee (PAC) members visited the Thosne Khola rural solar drinking water project site at Konjyosom Rural Municipality, Lalitpur, Nepal implemented by Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), Government of Nepal.
During the visit, the Bhutanese delegation explored how solar power is being effectively utilised in addressing community water supply systems in Nepal’s mid-hills. The team examined technical specifications and financing mechanisms that could inform similar implementations back home. The site visit aimed to showcase the potential of renewable energy solutions in addressing water challenges in Bhutan, both for drinking and irrigation, as a part of climate change adaptation efforts.
“The first thing that struck me about the irrigation system here is the dynamic head[2]. It’s about 400 metres, which is a significant height. That’s huge. In Bhutan, we have one irrigation system with a dynamic head of about 150 metres, and even with that, we’re still struggling to pump water effectively. It becomes technically challenging and economically unfeasible.
But after seeing the lift irrigation system here, I was impressed by how simple and efficient it is. Despite the large dynamic head, they’re able to pump water and integrate the system for both irrigation and drinking water supply.
Another thing that stood out to me was the community’s contribution to the project. I learned that the total cost was about 21 million NPR, and around 2 million of that came from the community itself. That’s a great initiative – when the community invests their own resources, especially money, it gives them a sense of ownership and responsibility towards the system,” shares Tenzin Drugyel, National focal point for irrigation, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Bhutan.
“The moment I saw this project site, I was immediately reminded of two locations in the east and two in the west of Bhutan where similar opportunities exist. There are many water bodies down in the gullies that can be harnessed and lifted to settlements on the mountain tops where people reside,” remarked Khandu Tshering, Principal Engineer, Irrigation Division, Department of Infrastructure Development, Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport, Bhutan. “This project demonstrates proven renewable energy solutions that are technically sound, financially feasible, and hold strong potential for replication across Bhutan – provided there is effective coordination, integration, and support in design and financing mechanisms.”
“This field visit has been very enriching, especially because Bhutan and Nepal share similar geomorphological conditions. We are both dealing with the complexities of mountain ecosystems – steep terrain, high mountains, and deep valleys,” shared Kinzang Namgay, Deputy Chief Program Officer at the Department of Water, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan. “In such landscapes, solar-powered lift irrigation presents an important alternative for delivering water to rural communities living on mountain slopes. The project implemented here is highly replicable in Bhutan. If it works in Nepal, I believe it can work in Bhutan as well.” shares Kinzang Namgay, Deputy Chief Program Officer, Department of Water, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan.
“There are three key takeaways from today’s visit,” reflects Karma Penjor Dorji, Director General, Department of Energy, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan. “First is community engagement. When communities are involved right from the beginning of the project, we see better care and maintenance of the infrastructure, especially when ownership is transferred to them.
Second is capacity building. With proper training, communities can handle minor operations and maintenance issues on their own. This not only empowers them but also plays a critical role in the long-term sustainability of such projects.
Third is the importance of appropriate technology. We often design overly complex systems, and when the technology fails, the entire project can collapse. The technology should serve the community, not the other way around. Sustainability must be embedded as much in governance and community empowerment as it is in infrastructure, and in this scheme, I can clearly see these aspects being addressed.”
In Bhutan, the adoption of new technologies is guided by the country’s development philosophy of Gross National Happiness (GNH), which emphasises sustainable, inclusive, and holistic growth. In the energy sector, this translates into a strong commitment to green and clean energy solutions. As Bhutan seeks to revitalise its agriculture sector and improve access to water amidst growing climate challenges, renewable energy-powered lift irrigation presents a viable and context-appropriate solution.
The project implemented in Thosne Khola, Nepal, offers valuable lessons on how such systems can be effectively utilised for both irrigation and drinking water supply. With strong cross-sectoral collaboration and context-specific adaptation, Bhutan is well-positioned to replicate and scale these innovations. Doing so will not only enhance water security and strengthen rural livelihoods but also contribute significantly to long-term climate resilience .
[1] United Nations Development Programme. Assessment of Climate Risks on Water Resources for National Adaptation Plan. UNDP Bhutan, 8 November 2023. https://www.undp.org/bhutan/publications/assessment-climate-risks-water-resources-national-adaptation-plan
[2] height that the water needs to be lifted from the source (like a river or well) up to where it’s used (like a tank or field).
Meteorological agencies across the world have predicted a high probability of a wetter-and-hotter-than-normal summer monsoon for most of South Asia in 2025. That is likely to intensify the risks of water-related disasters in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) terrain spread across the eight South Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – surmise experts from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in their HKH Monsoon Outlook 2025.
The summer monsoon, between June and September, is the major source of precipitation in the HKH region with significant impacts on the hydrology of its river basins, which form the lifeline of nearly two billion people in the region. While a good monsoon is essential for replenishing these river systems, above-normal precipitations can expose the region to high risks of disastrous flash floods and landslides along the mountainous terrains and riverine floods in the plains. Historical records of floods in the region show that 72.5% of the total number of flood events recorded between 1980 and 2024 occurred during the summer monsoon season.
On the other hand, rising temperatures can accelerate cryosphere melting, contributing to short-term increases in river flow or ‘discharge’ and heightening the risk of glacial lake outburst floods, and in combination with wetter monsoon can enhance heat stress and cause waterborne disease outbreaks.
Pooling together the analyses of global and regional meteorological bodies like the 31st South Asian Climate Outlook Forum (SASCOF-31), APEC climate center (APCC), International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), along with those from various national agencies, the Outlook predicts temperature at above-normal level in almost all eight countries with an estimated mean summer temperature anomaly ranging from 0.5°C to 2°C above-normal. High probability of above-normal precipitations is predicted for over most of India, Nepal and Pakistan. While Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar are likely to receive near-normal levels of rainfall, normal to above-normal precipitations are also predicted for the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China.
Reflecting on these predictions, Arun Bhakta Shrestha, Senior Advisor at ICIMOD, reasserted the exacerbating vulnerability of the HKH region to increasing climate anomalies and cascading climate-induced disasters, “The tragic loss of lives and extensive damage during the September 2024 floods in Kathmandu Valley is a stark reminder of the rising climate threats in the region. It is a slice of the future staring us in the face. With projections across –the board indicating increasing monsoon precipitations and a shift toward more extreme events, there is an urgent need to revamp disaster preparedness and invest in improved forecasting and impact-based early warning systems across the region.”
Extreme weather events happen on the scale of a single day, while the nature, magnitude and extent of their adverse effects vary widely over physiography and across socioeconomic groups. Forecasting these events with accuracy calls for spatially and temporally localised signals of climatic anomalies. Simultaneously, such forecasts also need to account for exposure and/or vulnerability, translating the physical hazard characteristics into socioeconomic consequences.
However, given the dual dearth of short-term meteorological prediction capability and commensurate investments in the HKH, longer-term forecasts, such as the ones compiled in the HKH Monsoon Outlook, are critical for building insights into the prospective seasonal conditions at large. According to Sarthak Shrestha, Remote Sensing and Geo-Information Associate at ICIMOD, “Sharing this information timely is important from the point of disaster preparedness. Last year’s floods and landslides were an eye-opener for the strong need for early action and coordinated response across the region.”
In view of the rising frequency and aggravating severity of extreme weather events in the region, there is a growing consensus among regional meteorologists and disaster risk management experts on the need for impact-based forecasting of meteorological parameters and events. In tandem, ICIMOD has developed a suite of toolkits for forecasting precipitation, temperature, and river discharge up to two to ten days in advance, for Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan.
“These tools are already being used by the hydro-meteorological departments of the governments of Bangladesh and Nepalto generate their flood bulletins. The Red Cross and several municipalities across Nepal use these bulletins for anticipatory actions. The Benighat Rorang Municipality in the Bagmati Province of Nepal, for example, used these early warnings during the September 2024 floods to close schools in advance and keep almost 17,000 students safe. Our next step is to use these tools for impact-based forecasting,” says Manish Shrestha, Hydrologist at ICIMOD.
According to Saswata Sanyal, Manager, Disaster Risk Reduction Intervention, ICIMOD, “Our Community-Based Flood Early Warning Systems (CBFEWS) have proven to be life-saving tools, particularly in Nepal’s southern plains, where municipalities have adopted them to strengthen flood response. The demonstrated success of these systems has attracted interest from neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, and India, to test and replicate similar approaches in their watersheds toward end-to-end warning and last-mile connectivity. This underscores the vital role of proactive, community-centered approaches in building resilience to climate-induced disasters. At ICIMOD, we aim at converting warnings to actions – empowering communities before the disaster strikes.”
Excellencies, distinguished delegates, colleagues,
It is an honour to represent the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development — ICIMOD — at this High-Level Conference on Glacier Preservation. We extend our sincere thanks to the Government of Tajikistan for their warm hospitality and commend their leadership – alongside the many countries and organisations represented here - in bringing global attention to this urgent and escalating crisis.
ICIMOD serves eight Regional Member Countries that span the vast expanse that is the Hindu Kush Himalaya — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, and is headquartered and hosted by the Government of Nepal in Kathmandu. Often called the Third Pole, this region holds the largest ice reserves outside the Arctic and Antarctic. It is home to over 240 million people and supports water, food, and energy security for more than 2 billion people downstream.
Yet the cryosphere here – as we have heard from so many delegates already - is degrading at alarming rates, due to warming, unsustainable development, and environmental degradation. Even under the most optimistic emissions scenarios, up to two-thirds of glacier volume could be lost by 2100. Peak water is projected around mid-century—just 25 years from now—after which flows will decline. The implications of these changes for regional – even global - stability are unthinkable.
Over 200 glacial lakes are now classified as potentially dangerous—particularly in Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, and Pakistan—posing serious risks to lives and infrastructure. These are no longer future threats. The science is clear. But the response is still far too limited.
At ICIMOD, we know no single country can address this alone. Glaciers cross borders!
That is why – at ICIMOD - we work regionally to generate evidence, support decisions, and enable action. But we need stronger collaboration and far greater investment.
We urge prioritisation in five areas:
1. On Science and Risk Assessment
2. On Inclusive Adaptation and Resilient Infrastructure
3. On Community Engagement and Indigenous Knowledge
4. On Policy Integration
5. On Regional and International Cooperation
The time for fragmented, reactive action is over. We must shift:
The HKH is critical to the stability and resilience of a large part of the world. Glacier preservation is not just an environmental concern—it is a core economic development issue.
ICIMOD stands ready to work with you all—to act decisively, at scale, and with the urgency this crisis demands.
In an era where artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being leveraged to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), digital tools hold immense potential for development initiatives. However, in rural areas with limited internet access, AI-based solutions might seem unachievable.
Gathering insights from communities is vital to understand their water needs. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and Frank Water collaborated to conduct household surveys in two springshed sites in Nepal’s Kavrepalanchowk district (Opi and Bhelwati) using Frank Water’s Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Connect tool. Alongside these surveys, a pilot initiative by Colectiv, Frank Water, and ICIMOD tested the feasibility of collecting qualitative data through voice notes. This method aimed to assess the feasibility and efficiency gains from using AI to assist with transcription, translation, and analysis of qualitative data.
This case study highlights how a hybrid approach combining offline data collection with AI-supported analysis can enhance qualitative research in remote regions.
Community resource persons conducted 31 interviews with local householders, asking two key questions:
Challenges in water access: Can you tell me about any problems or difficulties you face in accessing clean drinking water? Would you like to make any changes to your drinking water source? (सफा पिउने पानी प्राप्त गर्न तपाईंले भोग्नु भएका कुनै समस्या वा कठिनाइहरूबारे भन्न सक्नुहुन्छ? के तपाईं आफ्नो पिउने पानीको स्रोतमा कुनै परिवर्तन गर्न चाहनुहुन्छ?)
Community resource persons recorded participants' responses as audio notes using mobile phones. The files were anonymised, uploaded to an encrypted online folder, and later transcribed, translated and analysed using Colectiv’s AI-based qualitative analysis tool.
Feasibility and challenges
What did the community say?
Community members had a strong preference for drinking spring water. Spring water tastes sweet and good, and people feel it is healthy and good.
म ओपी मूलको पानी पिउँछु। म जन्मेदेखि नै यही पानी पिइरहेको छु। यो पानी मलाई एकदमै स्वादिलो लाग्छ। यो नै सबैभन्दा राम्रो पानी हो किनभने यो अत्यन्तै मिठो छ । यो पानी एकपटक पिएपछि अरू कुनै पानी पिउन मन लाग्दैन। (I drink water from Opi spring, I've been drinking it since birth, it feels good, it's the best water because it's incredibly sweet. Once you drink it, you do not feel like drinking any other water)
Tap water and stored tank water were alternatives for a few people, but many avoided these sources. They use this water only for livestock or washing.
हाम्रो बोरिङ पनि छ, तर बोरिङको पानी पिउनको लागि त्यति योग्य छैन।लुगा धुन, भाडा मोल्न मात्र प्रयोग गर्ने गरिएको छ। (The water from our boring well is not as suitable, and it is only good for washing clothes and utensils.)
The main challenges they face are that the spring source can be far away and, especially in the rainy season, paths can become slippery and impassable. The spring can also get contaminated with overflowing water.
बर्खामा बाटो चिप्लो हुन्छ र हिउँदमाआफूलाईचाहिएकोजति पानी पाइदैन। (During the rainy season, the paths get slippery, and sometimes it's not easy to get as much water as wanted in winter season.)
बर्खामा मूलको पानी धमिलो हुन्छ, कहिलेकाहीँ किराफट्याङ्ग्रा पनि जम्मा हुन्छन्, र सफा पानी पाउने कुनै सम्भावना हुँदैन। (During the rainy season, it becomes muddy, sometimes insects accumulate, and there’s no way to get clean water)
People wanted improvements in infrastructures to help them have better drinking water access. Many people requested that their preferred spring water be brought closer to their homes to reduce the burden of collecting it. If the water could be piped directly to households, or at least to nearby tanks or reservoirs, it would help avoid the difficulties of collecting water along muddy paths.
ट्यांकी बनाइदिएर धारो जडान गरिदिए सजिलो हुन्थ्यो।बूढाबुढी बारम्बार पानी ल्याएर खान सक्दैनन्। (If a tank is built or a tap is provided it would be much easier. Elderly people can’t keep carrying water back and forth)
हरेक घरमा धारो जडान गरिदिए कस्तो सजिलो हुने थियो, मलाई त यस्तै लाग्छ! (If taps could be provided at every house, it would be convenient, that's what I feel)
Others requested improvements to existing sources, such as better pathways and protective measures to prevent contamination and overflow.
पानी नपस्ने गरी अलिकति ढलानसहित पर्खाल बनाउने र सम्भव भएमा वरिपरीको भुइँ पनि ढलान गरेर ढोकाहाल्नसके अझ राम्रो र सुरक्षित हुने थियो। (It would be better and safer to construct a wall with a slight slope so that water doesn't enter, and if possible, to install a door with the surrounding ground sloped accordingly.)
पँधेरोमा जाने बाटोअलि राम्रो बनाइदिनु पर्छ।पँधेरो वरिपरी खनेर आसपासको क्षेत्र अलिकति ठूलो बनाइदिनु पर्छ र राम्रोसँग संरक्षण गरिनुपर्छ। (It would help if the roads were improved. The area around the source needs to be a little bigger and better maintained)
As a partnership, we reflected on the inclusion of an AI tool for data collection and remote analysis. The process of solving development problems in remote regions across world has always meant involving ‘people from outside’ these communities. How much ever one may try – it’s difficult to bridge the gap between what is communicated by communities and what is understood by the ‘people from outside.’ The use of a tool like Colectiv reduces the communication gap drastically as the interpretation of what is spoken does not lie with individuals recording their responses, or in the reduction to survey items. Instead, this tool allowed all the subjective answers community members provided to be recorded verbatim without any interpretation and shows (qualitatively and quantitatively) what the community members want across various demographics within the community. We feel that needs assessment and understanding of community perceptions from such tools is closer to what the community means and not what is in the heads of interpreters, or those selected involved in the project.
This pilot demonstrated that AI-driven transcription and translation can support qualitative data collection in remote communities. In this case, human oversight was important for accuracy, but this may be less essential in other contexts. More broadly, the use of voice notes enabled researchers to capture community-driven narratives, providing valuable insights beyond quantitative survey responses.
By combining digital tools with human-centered approaches, organisations like ICIMOD, Frank Water and Colectiv can enhance development outcomes by ensuring that community perspectives can be used to improve programme planning and delivery. The value of a household survey can be greatly increased by adding tools that gather peoples’ voices and put them at the heart of decision-making.
The tourist season is at its peak in the hill stations and high mountains across the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region as the scorching summer unfolds its arms. I remember last year, just as the snow was melting and summer was beginning, my colleagues and I were trekking to Laya – the highest settlement in Bhutan at an altitude of 3,800 metres above sea level (masl). Laya lies within the Jigme Dorji National Park, the country’s second largest park, situated in Gasa Dzongkhag, northwestern Bhutan. We drove from Thimphu via Gasa up to Tongchudrak where the road ends. We started the rest of the journey by foot.
I was very excited as we passed through the scenic beauty of natural and cultural manifestations. However, I was also quite surprised to see scattered plastic waste that people had left behind along the walking trails, even in such a remote and otherwise pristine place. When we asked our guide about it, he explained that the litter is mostly caused by local tourists and residents. Over time, their eating habits have changed, with growing consumption of packaged food and beverages, resulting in an increase in plastic waste in the area.
It was disheartening to see the mountain landscape marred by scattered multi-layered plastic wrappers, bottles made of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and heaps of glass bottles. Along the trails, there were small open pits which had been dug for waste disposal, but they were often left exposed, with trash blown away by the wind. In some of these open pits, I also saw trash being openly burned. Just before we entered the village, there was a huge pile of mixed degradable and non-degradable waste dumped beside the river. I said to myself that I must at least collect the waste along the walking trails on my way back, which I decided to do.
Before leaving Laya, I obtained a couple of large sacks from a local shop owner. With one of my friends, I picked up single-use and multi-layered plastic wrappers (mostly from chocolates, chips, chewing gum, biscuits and other snacks), PET bottles, beer cans, and energy drink glass bottles scattered along the trails. As we collected the waste and walked down from Laya, the sack grew bigger and heavier; it was difficult to carry, but our determination did not waver. We brought back about 14 kilograms of waste just from the walking trail alone on our journey from Laya to Gasa. Most of the waste collected was PET bottles (e.g. soft drinks like Coke, Fanta, Pepsi) followed by beer cans, and juice tetra packs.
The above scenario resembles the fate of many other tourist destinations, religious sites and trekking routes across the HKH region. In our rapid assessment of solid waste management in high-mountain protected areas in Nepal, we found that almost 60% of the waste is biodegradable, which is often either fed to animals, buried, or used to make compost. Meanwhile, non-degradable waste is either openly dumped near rivers or burned, contaminating water sources and polluting the air, which directly or indirectly affects human health and biodiversity.
In the Indian Himalayan Region, the ‘Himalayan Cleanup’ campaign is a local movement that began in 2018 with the aim of addressing the waste crisis. The Himalayan Cleanup’s annual waste audit found over 75% of plastic waste collected in 2024 was non-recyclable.
In the HKH mountains, almost 45% to 60% of waste is degradable, while non-degradable waste accounts for a minimal quantity, and its effective recycling is always a challenge. Onsite waste recycling is not economically viable unless waste is aggregated. The aggregation and transportation of waste, particularly plastics and glass bottles from the mountains is very expensive. If the plastics are not compacted, transporting them to a recycling facility becomes very costly too. Likewise, handling and transporting glass bottles from mountainous terrain is very difficult, and at many places, heaps of such bottles are simply piled up and left. Transporting this waste is even more expensive due to the challenging geographical terrain and lack of motorable roads. However, in some places such as in the Everest and Annapurna regions of Nepal, local communities and hoteliers have voluntarily banned glass beer bottles, opting instead for aluminium cans which can be crushed before aggregation and then recycled.
Informal waste workers and rag pickers play a crucial role in waste collection and segregation for recycling, but there is a huge challenge in aligning them with a formal network and ensuring their occupational health and safety. In many cases, these informal workers are from outside the province or state and the local governments do not recognise their role for incentivisation.
Non-degradable waste should be further segregated based on type and characteristics. For example, a plastic soft drink bottle uses three distinct types of plastic – the bottle itself is made from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), the bottle cap is made of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and the label wrapper is made from Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE). PET and HDPE are highly valuable plastics and easily recyclable, whereas LDPE is characterised by low-density molecules, which is cheap to produce but not easily recycled. Single-use plastic bags, all kinds of packaging wrappers, coating on containers and bottles, and garbage bags are all LDPE plastics, whereas multilayered plastics have thin sheets of various other materials laminated together (including aluminium, plastics, and paper) and are difficult to separate.
LDPE and multilayered plastics are becoming a serious problem with rapid industrialisation and increased consumption of processed food resulting in consumers dumping these plastics all over the pristine mountain landscapes. Many recyclers do not use these plastics as the recovery process is difficult and costly.
As described in the situation in Laya, the dietary habits and consumption patterns of mountain people across the Himalayas are shifting towards processed and packaged foods. This has heightened the waste problems which are further exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and lack of mountain-specific, simple and affordable waste management technologies. For example, sophisticated, modern and artificial intelligence (AI)-based waste management technologies available in the market, such as smart bins, waste-sorting robots, automatic high voltage bailer machines for waste compaction or even incinerators may not be suitable in the mountains unless they are portable, energy efficient, easily operated and maintained, and are customised to the local context depending on the waste characterisation and quantity.
The solutions to waste management should go beyond ‘end-of-life management’ – when a resource is no longer usable but could be recycled or upcycled towards a circular economy, whereby we can keep reusing the resources, creating a value from what could otherwise be considered waste. Here we outline some waste management solutions for the mountains:
Similarly, the local community-driven zero waste campaign, ‘The Himalayan Cleanup’ across the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), is a clear example of a bottom-up approach to decentralised waste management and plastic recycling. In April 2025, several organisations across the IHR created the ‘Zero Waste Himalayan Alliance’ to tackle the reported 80% of single-use plastics from food and beverage packaging.
A World Bank report on solid waste management from 2018 projected that global waste generation is expected to rise 3.40 billion tonnes annually by 2050, a drastic increase from the current 2.01 billion tonnes. To curb this scenario and to bring systemic changes to effective waste management, our efforts should be threefold:
In addition, there should be:
There is still hope as we strive to maintain and protect cleaner and greener surroundings where our future generations can thrive healthily and coexist with nature. To mark this World Environment Day 2025, let us promise to #BeatPlasticPollution, let us nurture our mother Earth and let us serve the majestic Himalayas to sustain its crucial ecosystem services flows.
Acknowledgement
Sabitri Dhakal
Gillian Summers
Barsha Rani Gurung
Samuel Thomas
It is incredibly sad to learn that Professor U Shankar is no longer with us. He has been a great inspiration to many of us involved in teaching and research in economics in India, particularly in environmental economics, econometrics, and public policy. He provided invaluable support throughout his career. Professor Shankar’s academic achievements are truly impressive. He studied Economics at the Madras University and Annamalai University in Tamil Nadu, one of the states in India, in the 1950s. He completed his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in econometrics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the United States of America (USA), in 1967.
Professor Shankar taught at the University of Wisconsin, USA, during the 1970s and became a full professor there in 1976. He later returned to India, where he played a key role in establishing the Department of Econometrics at the University of Madras in 1978. He became the President of the Indian Econometric Society in 1993. Prof. Sankar was one of the founders of the Madras School of Economics and became its director. He served as the National Program Coordinator for the World Bank-funded Environmental Capacity Building Program in India during the late 1990s. He was one of the main resource persons for this programme, which trained many young economists and administrators across India in Environmental Economics at that time. The programme brought a revolutionary change in the teaching and research methods in Environmental Economics in India, benefiting a generation of economists who specialised in this field. He also played a highly active role in a similar and significant programme in the broader context of South Asian countries – the South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE). In recognition of his valuable contributions to teaching and research in Environmental Economics, he was made a Fellow of SANDEE in 2009. Additionally, he was a National Fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research during the period 2003-2004.
In his illustrious career spanning several decades, Prof. Shankar published numerous articles in both national and international peer-reviewed journals. During the 1970s, he co-authored several papers in leading international journals, including The Review of Economic Studies (1969), International Economic Review (1970), The Review of Economics and Statistics (1973), Journal of Economic Theory (1977), among others. He also authored several books such as ‘Controlling Pollution: Incentives and Regulations,’ (with S Mehta and S Mundle, Sage Publications, Delhi, 1997), ‘Environmental Economics: Reader in Economics’ (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2000), ‘Trade and Environment: A Study of India’s Leather Exports’ (Oxford University Press, 2006), and ‘The Economics of India’s Space Programme: An Exploratory Analysis’ (Oxford University Press, 2007).
In addition to his extensive scholarly contributions, Prof. Shankar was actively associated with various professional bodies, academic boards, and policy committees in India. His teaching at several universities and other academic institutions has benefited numerous students, many of whom now hold key positions in academia.