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South Asia has the highest population-weighted pollution concentration in the world (HEI-Report, 2020), and the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) and Himalayan Foothills (HF) of South Asia is the region’s pollution hotspot.
The impacts of these emissions are manifold.
The health impacts of toxic air are so stark that they alone provide the imperative for action.
Globally, every year, over eight million people die as a result of diseases caused by breathing polluted air (including respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses IHME, 2024), making it the leading environmental threat to human health (World Bank, 2020).
In South Asia, air pollution is currently the second-leading risk factor for adverse health outcomes and the third-leading risk factor for premature deaths. It accounts for 11% of premature deaths and results in 40 million disability-adjusted life years, with the majority of the disease burden attributed to particulate matter (PM) (S. A Jabbar et al, 2022).
It’s also been proven to cause cognitive impairments, including in children’s brain development and educational attainment. This means that breathing pollution of the severity we routinely see in this region when young can cause changes to cognition and examination achievements that ricochet down a child’s entire life course.
Pollution in South Asia also disrupts everyday life and livelihoods. It causes schools and public spaces to close, the grounding of vehicular and air transport, and construction work to stop. The hit to the region’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is also significant.
Less well-publicised perhaps, in this region at least, is the link between air pollution and temperature rise.
It has just been confirmed that 2024 was the first time that temperatures worldwide passed 1.5ºC above preindustrial times.
We know the Hindu Kush Himalayan region is warming at double the global average, with frightening implications for regional water, food, and energy security due to the losses such warming causes to the region’s vitally important frozen water stores.
Air pollution accelerates these losses in two ways.
First, a significant percentage of air pollution in this region is composed of greenhouse gases (GHGs). These regional pollutants – carbon dioxide (CO2), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), black carbon (BC), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH4) – contribute to long-term warming, accelerating cryosphere losses and intensifying extreme precipitation and other weather events, including heatwaves, and droughts.
Secondly, regional pollutants add to the already-accelerating melting of glaciers in the short term too, with sooty deposits, called ‘black carbon’, from combustion being carried long distances and settling on top of glaciers. These deposits darken snow and ice – transforming white surfaces so the cryosphere absorbs, instead of reflects, heat from the sun’s rays.
It has also been proven, in a cruel irony, that air pollution can actually impede the transition away from fossil fuels – limiting the effectiveness of solar panels by blocking sunlight and dirtying solar panels that should be able to power the urgent shift away from planet-warming combustion.
While a variety of combustion sources contribute to South Asia’s now world-renowned toxic air, smoke from burning agricultural residues is one of the biggest sources, particularly during the pre-monsoon (March, April, May) and post-monsoon (October, November) seasons. With everything we now know about the impacts of continued incineration, taking action to curtail this practice should now be a top priority for policymakers, environmentalists, stakeholders, and agricultural bodies. So, how did the burning of agricultural residues become so prevalent, and what can we do to reduce it?
The IGP-HF comprises 13.5 million hectares, which span Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.
The rich water resources of the Indus and the Ganges rivers make these regions among some of the most intensely farmed areas on the Sub-continent, and the four largest contributors to emissions from agricultural waste, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, are hugely dependent on farming. The farming sector contributes 24% to Pakistan’s GDP, is the largest source of livelihood in India, and engages 66% of the population in Nepal and nearly half of the population in Bangladesh.
Until the middle of the 20th century, in this region, farmers used agricultural residues as animal feed, fodder, fuel, roof thatch, and mulch for packaging and composting or fertiliser for the soil, with just a small amount burnt in fields.
Burning agricultural residues on the scale now seen is an unintended byproduct of the 1960s Green Revolution, which saw the introduction of faster-cropping cereal varieties and mechanised farm tools.
These new crops and technologies, while boosting productivity and yields, resulted in shorter cropping windows and faster harvesting cycles, meaning that the burning of agricultural residues became an expedient way to clear the ground after harvests, especially in October and November, to make way for a second planting.
A number of sources continue to label the burning of agricultural residues as ‘agricultural waste burning’, though even this nomenclature contributes to continuation of the harmful practice. As noted by the World Bank (Cassou, 2018), “Burning, for example, can be held in place by the notion that crop residues are a form of waste, rather than a resource, and the customary belief that burning is the least costly way of removing a cumbersome waste stream. The idea that crop residues are a waste stream can also minimise the feeling of loss associated with burning.”
As well as the opportunity to fit two or more crops into one calendar year, the practice also continues to be fuelled by:
Burning agricultural residues can feel like a quick fix. However, such combustion unleashes a combination of substances – including planet-heating GHGs, suspended particles (aerosols), most of which are known or suspected carcinogens, and toxic compounds and heavy metals that deplete the ozone layer and can form secondary GHGs (Mehta & Badegaonkar, 2023; Lin et al., 2022; Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019).
In the wider South Asian context – which also covers Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives, and Sri Lanka in addition to the countries of the IGP-HF – the gas pollutants produced through burning are:
The region’s emissions from crop residue burning also release PM – suspended particles, also known as aerosols, that are particularly linked to adverse health effects. In South Asia, the burning of agricultural residues releases:
Bangladesh: Agricultural residue burning is responsible for 39% of Bangladesh’s total emissions (WRI CAIT, Mehta & Badegaonkar, 2023). Open burning of rice straw is not currently widely practised in Bangladesh, as crops continue to be mostly harvested manually, with residual straw tending to be ploughed back into the ground. Recently, however, with the rise in the use of combine harvesters and reapers, more farmers are burning residues. Farmers in Bangladesh choose to burn long types of straw, such as the residue of Aman rice, in the low-lying areas of the country. In 2020–21, 73.36 million tonnes of agricultural residue were produced, out of which 0.22 million tonnes were burnt.
Figure 1: Open burning of agricultural residues is still a major challenge throughout the IGP-HF despite strict regulations and grave concerns about air pollution. Photos: Chimi Seldon/Anil Maharjan, ICIMOD
India: India is the second-largest crop producer in the world (FAO), producing around 500 million metric tonnes (MT) of agricultural residues annually, of which 100 MT are burnt. According to the Economy Survey of India, 2020, the total amount of agricultural residue generation in India rose from 80 MT in 1950–1951 to 520 MT in 2017–2018 (Lan et al., 2022). Since the early 2000s, there has been a rise in the burning of agricultural residues, which has led to PM2.5 levels that are 15–45 times higher than the safety standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Between 2003 and 2019, burning agricultural residues caused 44,000 to 98,000 premature deaths annually owing to PM exposure in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh (Lan et al., 2022). Recent data shows that the Air Quality Index (AQI) over Delhi ranges between unhealthy and hazardous levels, which severely impacts people’s health, transportation, well-being livelihoods, etc.
Nepal: 52% of Nepal’s total GHG emissions in 2013 came from agriculture (both burning of agricultural residues and enteric fermentation from livestock Mehta & Badegaonkar, 2023). Burning of agricultural residues continues to rise in Nepal, increasing from 2,280 gigagrams (Gg) in 2003–04 to 2,908 Gg in 2016–17, which represents a 25% rise. Over 90% of residue burning in Nepal takes place in the Terai region, the southern part of the country and its main rice-growing area. According to Das et al (2023), as with Bangladesh, one reason for the rise in agricultural stubble burning is the adoption of modern agricultural equipment like combine harvesters.
Pakistan: 20% of Pakistan’s emissions come from the agriculture sector. Between 2000 and 2014, the aggregate amount of crop residues from four crops (rice, wheat, sugarcane, and maize) was 757,000 Gg, of which, approximately 228,000 Gg was incinerated in the field (Azhar et al., 2019;Raza, M. H., 2022). Air pollution causes more than 22,000 premature adult deaths (Iqbal, M.P., 2024) in the country each year. In the last two weeks of October 2024 , the country has withstood acute air quality spikes, with AQI in Lahore hitting unhealthy to hazardous level. On November 15, Lahore recorded AQI of nearly 1,600 making it the most polluted city in the world. Government measures to avoid hospitalisations include shutting schools, airports, and highways, with a significant impact on GDP.
South Asia consists of approximately 57 percent of arable or agricultural land, and around 60 percent of the population is involved in farming (FAO).
Burning rice stubble continues to be a common practice for millions of farmers in the region, especially across the IGP-HF.
Given the large population sizes involved, transforming emissions from the burning of agricultural residues in the IGP-HF region will require a huge collective effort.
A wide array of stakeholders – from researchers, policymakers, businesses, and beyond – are already working hard to advance this work: from prototyping, scaling, incentivising, and marketing solutions to creating the right regulatory environment to support change and generating the evidence base to inform decision-making.
This work could not be more urgent, and with burning of agricultural residues such a significant contributor to total emissions in the region, tackling the practice is a key route for countries to meet their commitments under the 2015 Paris Agreement and other agreements, as well as meet citizens’ expectations for improved living and health standards.
A footnote on our analysis of agriculture residue burning
We used the information from the CAMS Global Fire Assimilation System (GFAS) to make an estimate of the number of pollutants that were released into the atmosphere by fires over the IGP-HF during the month of October 2024. This was done so that we could better comprehend the effects of burning. The fire radiative power (FRP), the dry matter burned, and emissions from biomass burning are all components of the GFAS data output for a wide variety of chemical, GHGs, and aerosol species that are available at a horizontal resolution of 0.1 degrees beginning in 2003 and continuing onward. With the help of the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) version 8.1 datasets, we determined the emissions from burning of agricultural residues of CH4, NH3, NOx, PM2.5, and NMVOC for 2022 for the countries of Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. All countries except Bangladesh show the highest emissions of PM2.5 followed by NMVOC, but in Bangladesh, NMVOC emission is more than PM2.5.
Table 1: Edgar v8.1 Emissions of pollutants from burning of agricultural residues in 2022
| Country | CH4 (kt) | NH3 (kt) | NOx (kt) | PM2.5 (kt) | NMVOC (kt) |
| India | 390 | 324 | 371 | 792 | 782 |
| Pakistan | 65 | 53 | 62 | 132 | 75 |
| Bangladesh | 20 | 18 | 18 | 41 | 46 |
| Nepal | 7 | 6 | 7 | 15 | 13 |
Furthermore, we made use of the real-time fire detection data and information that was provided by the Geo-KOMPSAT-2A (GK2A), which is a geostationary (GEO) satellite managed by South Korea. This satellite is capable of providing high-resolution pictures with a variety of spectral bands, such as visible, near infrared, and thermal infrared. These bands are helpful for monitoring atmospheric phenomena, land surfaces, and fires. The Advanced Meteorological Imager (AMI) instrument onboard GK2A provides continuous observation of fire events in real-time and detection of fire hotspots at intervals of 10 minutes during the daytime. In addition, it provides a combined product that can recognise smoke, cloud cover, and flames that are medium to large in size. On the other hand, its spatial resolution, which is less than 4km across the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), makes it difficult for it to identify smaller fires in the area.
In comparison, we also take into account the satellites that are in low earth orbit (LEO), which are known as the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). These satellites are responsible for providing global fire detection products. MODIS, which is carried by NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites, and VIIRS, which is carried by the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites, both collect data in spectral ranges that are comparable to one another. These ranges include thermal infrared bands, which are sensitive to the heat that is released by fires. To detect small-scale fires that GK2A is unable to detect, MODIS and VIIRS combined data products that have a spatial resolution of 1 km and 375 metres are used, respectively.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the spread of fires that occurred throughout the IGP-HF region from 1–25 October 2024. This particular time was selected since a large-scale emission from fires and burning was taking place in various regions at the time. For instance, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute reported that the state of Madhya Pradesh, in central India, had the largest number of stubble-burning cases, totalling 536, between the dates 19–25 October 2024. Punjab had 410 cases, and Haryana had 192 cases.
Figure 2.2 presents the RGB (red, green, and blue) true-colour imagery captured by GK2A-AMI, which depicts haze and smoke over the IGP-HF – features that are strongly associated with ongoing fires. This imagery offers a clear visualisation of the atmospheric effects caused by fire activity, illustrating how toxic gases/pollutants from fires contribute to reduced air quality and visibility over the affected areas.
Figure 3 demonstrates that regions that are classified as fire hotspots are responsible for emissions and contribute to an increase in the background concentration of pollutants. Within the scope of this analysis, we focus on the emissions of NH3, CH4, BC, and PM2.5 that are produced by fires. However, there are additional pollutants that are released during fires that influence the air, ecology, and health.
This impact analysis was conducted using the GK2A-AMI and MODIS/VIIRS satellite data accessed through SERVIR-HKH. Additionally, data was used from the freely accessible emission inventories, including the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR), Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS), Global Fire Assimilation System (GFAS), and ICIMOD AQ Monitoring System.
The author would like to thank Arun B. Shrestha, Bertrand Bessagnet, and Bhupesh Adhikary for their review and guidance, which helped to do this analysis. The author would also like to thank the ICIMOD communication team, mainly Annie Dare, Gillian Summers, and Chimi Seldon, for editing.
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Azhar, R., Zeeshan, M., & Fatima, K. (2019). Crop residue open field burning in Pakistan; multi-year high spatial resolution emission inventory for 2000–2014. Atmospheric Environment, 208, 20-33. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ S1352 23 1019 30202X
Bhuvaneshwari, S., Hettiarachchi, H., & Meegoda, J. N. (2019). Crop residue burning in India: Policy challenges and potential solutions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 832. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6427124/
Cassou, E (2018). Field Burning (English). Agricultural Pollution. Washington, D.C., World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/989351521207797690/Field-Burning
Das, B., Puppala, S. P., Maharjan, B., Bhujel, K. B., Mathema, A., Neupane, D., & Byanju, R. M. (2023). Crop residue burning and forest fire emissions in Nepal. In Vegetation fires and pollution in Asia (pp. 71–84). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-29916-2_5
Iqbal, M.P., 2024. Air Pollution: Challenges to Human Health in Pakistan. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons--Pakistan: JCPSP, 34(5), pp.507-508.
Lan, R., Eastham, S. D., Liu, T., Norford, L. K., & Barrett, S. R. (2022). Air quality impacts of crop residue burning in India and mitigation alternatives. Nature Communications, 13(1), 6537. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-34093-z
Lin, M., & Begho, T. (2022). Crop residue burning in South Asia: A review of the scale, effect, and solutions with a focus on reducing reactive nitrogen losses. Journal of Environmental Management, 314, 115104. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479722006776
Liu, T., Mickley, L. J., Singh, S., Jain, M., DeFries, R. S., & Marlier, M. E. (2020). Crop residue burning practices across north India inferred from household survey data: Bridging gaps in satellite observations. Atmospheric Environment: X, 8, 100091. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590162120300319
Mehta, C. R., & Badegaonkar, U. R. (2023). Sustainable management of crop residues in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan: Challenges and solutions. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). https://www.unescap.org/kp/2023/sustainable-management-crop-residues-bangladesh-india-nepal-and-pakistan-challenges-and#
Raza, M. H., Abid, M., Faisal, M., Yan, T., Akhtar, S., & Adnan, K. M. (2022). Environmental and health impacts of crop residue burning: Scope of sustainable crop residue management practices. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4753. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/8/4753
ICIMOD 伙伴在前线：对 2025 年西藏地震的人道主义响应 - ICIMOD Regional
At 9:05 am on 7 January, a powerful earthquake registering a magnitude of 6.8 on the Richter scale struck Cuoguo Township in Dingri County in the Xizang Autonomous Region of China.
126 people lost their lives. 188 sustained injuries, and thousands of villagers lost their homes.
Rescue operations continue, as emergency responders provide temporary shelters for displaced residents in the quake-stricken regions. With temperatures reaching -17°C, the situation remains urgent. In Cuoguo township, located at the epicentre, and Chamko township, the hardest-hit area, widespread building collapses have forced many residents to flee to open spaces for refuge.
Dingri, which lies on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, borders Nepal to the south, standing at an average elevation of 4,500 metres.
It is home to the northern basecamp of Mount Qomolangma, also known as Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain at 8,848.86m, and is inhabited by approximately 61,000 people, making it one of the largest border counties in Xizang.
The tremor, with a shallow depth of 10km, was felt far beyond its epicentre: not only across China but also in neighbouring countries including Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, and even parts of Bangladesh.
The state response has been swift and large scale. From the very first moments, rescue teams and essential supplies were dispatched by government authorities at all levels. President of China, Xi Jinping, urged all-out efforts to save lives and to minimise casualties, while Vice Premier Zhang Guoqing led a task force on-site to oversee the rescue operations.
Currently, over 12,000 rescue workers – including firefighters, military personnel, police, and specialised teams – are actively involved in the rescue efforts. In addition, the central government has rapidly sent over 22,000 winter relief items, including tents, clothing, and quilts, specially designed for the region’s cold, high-altitude conditions.
The Red Cross Society of China has also launched its own emergency response, delivering more than 4,600 relief items such as tents, blankets, and warm clothing to the disaster area. Meanwhile, efforts to restore communication have been progressing quickly. By the evening of the day of the earthquake, all communication had been fully restored in the three worst-hit townships near the epicentre.
Moreover, the Ecological and Environmental Monitoring Centre of Xizang has deployed teams to monitor drinking water quality in the affected areas. Several remote-sensing satellites have been deployed to capture images of the earthquake's impact, supporting ongoing rescue efforts from the skies.
All of these actions have taken place within the first 48 hours following the quake.
China Qomolangma Station for Atmospheric and Environmental Observation and Research, located in Zhaxizong township, Dingri County, sits at an elevation of 4,276 metres above sea level (masl). Managed by the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (ITP, CAS), one of ICIMOD’s key partners in China, the station carries out atmospheric and environmental monitoring of the region and serves as an essential hub for scientific expeditions to the world’s top.
Situated approximately 30km from the Mount Qomolangma Base Camp, 80km from Dingri County, and 650km from Lhasa, the station lies perilously close to the earthquake’s epicentre and was rocked by strong tremors.
According to the team, at 8:12 am local time, a magnitude 4.5 foreshock rattled the ground, but the main shock struck at 9:05 am, measuring 6.8, causing severe shaking that forced the station’s three team members – Xi Zhenhua (operations manager), Haibing Zheng (driver), and Tsangzhu Tsonam (observer)– to evacuate.
Despite the intensity of the earthquake and subsequent aftershocks, all staff remained safe, and the team immediately began assessing the damage.
The station was among the first to deliver aid to Dingri, working closely with local authorities to document and distribute critical relief supplies.
Mount Qomolangma itself was not impacted by the earthquake. According to Ma Weiqiang, the station’s director, there were no signs of icefalls, avalanches, or other significant geological changes.
As ICIMOD’s longstanding partner and China’s first specialised institute dedicated to disaster prevention, mitigation, and post-disaster reconstruction, the Sichuan University – Hong Kong Polytechnic University Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction (IDMR), responded promptly to the recent earthquake.
The day after the disaster, IDMR quickly assembled an expert team equipped with drones and advanced tools to assess the damage at the epicentre, structural losses, and secondary disaster risks, providing critical scientific support to inform government decision-making.
IDMR’s support team employed synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing and geographic information technologies to monitor and analyse ground deformation caused by the earthquake. This work helped identify high-risk zones and provided vital technical support to the teams working on the ground.
Simultaneously, IDMR faculty members developed a local language earthquake preparedness handbook to help affected communities build awareness of disaster risks and improve their self-rescue capabilities.
Leveraging its academic expertise in disaster prevention and mitigation, IDMR swiftly and effectively mobilised, providing professional support to disaster-stricken areas while reaffirming its steadfast commitment to responsibility and proactive action.
As aftershocks and subsequent earthquakes in the area continued, the immediate priority has been to provide relief to those affected by the earthquake. The disaster has posed significant challenges, particularly in remote, high-altitude areas, necessitating sustained efforts across multiple sectors.
ICIMOD’s long-time partner, particularly the team at Qomolangma Station acted swiftly, supplying relief and supporting local authorities, emphasising the critical role of scientific institutions in disaster response.
This prompts further reflection: how can researchers contribute more in times of crisis? Beyond ensuring their own safety, what more can they do to support recovery and rebuilding?
ICIMOD will continue to support its partners in China, our regional member country, focusing on monitoring, collaborative efforts for long-term recovery, and building resilience for the future.
A special thank you to my ICIMOD colleague, Zhang Qianggong, and Tian Bingwei of Sichuan University for sharing the frontline stories of the Qomolangma Station for Atmospheric and Environmental Observation and Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Sichuan University – Hong Kong Polytechnic University Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction(IDMR)
China Focus: Xizang quake kills 126, all-out rescue effort underway
All-out rescue efforts underway following Xizang 6.8-magnitude quake
Braving cold, quake rescuers race against time on world's highest plateau
Xinhua News | China deploys satellites for Xizang 6.8-magnitude quake rescue efforts
Mt. Qomolangma reports no geological disasters after Xizang quake
646 aftershocks detected after Xizang 6.8-magnitude quake
Guest Author: Dr. Sangay
Natural capital is the value of everything that comes from nature; however, the economic contributions it makes are not adequately reflected in any national gross domestic product (GDP), the main economic indicator of most countries. This highlights the need to measure the role of nature, which is an essential part of not only economies, but also people’s livelihoods and wellbeing.
Many countries measure their economic growth through GDP, which measures the economic value of goods and services produced within a given territory and accounting period. This has been the standard for compiling economic measures based on accounting and economic principles since the adoption of the System of National Accounts (SNA) in the early 1950s. According to the World Bank, global GDP is estimated at $105.44 trillion for 2023, while the International Monetary Fund reports that it is still going to grow by 3.2% in 2025.
The question is, do these numbers reflect the true wealth of the world? Is the GDP standard appropriate to measure economic prosperity? Is GDP truly the single most powerful economic measure?
It begins in England with Sir William Petty creating a framework to measure wartime income and expenditure to sustain the British economy. Further methodological additions were made by Adam Smith and Colin Cark to include foreign trade and national income as indicators. An American economist and Nobel Laureate, Simon Kuznets is eventually credited for creating the modern GDP and SNA framework aiming to capture the economic output of all economic agents (individuals, household, and government) produced within a given territory in a specific period.
However, Kuznets himself had some doubts whether GDP can measure overall prosperity when a good proxy for welfare was still missing. US politician and lawyer, Robert F. Kennedy, said, ‘GDP measures everything except that which makes life worthwhile.’ This points towards the fact that GDP currently only measures market-based transactions and income. Non-market-based activities such as home care, household work, or leisure, which are important to wellbeing, are not considered.
Most recently, economist Sir Partha Dasgupta highlighted the neglected role of natural capital, which has plummeted nearly 40% whilst GDP per capita has doubled from 1992–2014 in economic assessments (Figure 1), which exposes the consequences of valuing short-term gains over long-term planetary health. Traditional economic models fail to include nature in their application as natural capital is taken for granted. GDP can be seen as an example of a faulty measure that does not consider nature as an asset, nor does it consider the adverse impacts of the depreciation of this asset. This needs to be considered to make sure that nature is as much part of the economy and vice-versa.
The relationship between nature and economy has always been one-sided. For the economy to develop, it has mostly relied on nature as a source of raw materials whilst also using it as a sink for waste from economic processes, overlooking nature’s contribution to people (Figure 2). This has exacerbated the triple planetary crisis of pollution, climate change, and biodiversity loss and efforts made are not sufficient to counter adverse effects. Instead, looking at it as a two-sided relationship will contribute towards a holistic wellbeing that not only benefits the economy but also individuals, society, and the environment.
The idea of NCA is rooted in the concept of ‘Green GDP’ which was conceptualised in the 1980s to include environmental and social costs into the National Accounts Framework.
Two international events flagged the importance of natural capital in economic decision making. The 1987 Brundtland Report (also entitled ‘Our Common Future’) highlighted the need for a new methodology to reflect the value of natural resources and ecosystems and to mainstream it. The 1992 Rio Summit addressed NCA as part of its broader agenda through Agenda 21, which recommended signatory countries to undertake environment and economic accounting for an integrated approach to development.
In 1993, the UN Statistics Division developed a framework to prepare the System of Environment Economic Accounts (SEEA) and published a handbook which allowed environmental data to be integrated with the existing National Accounts Framework. Integrating SEEA with the System of National Accounts (SNA) meant that SEEA used the concepts and principles of SNA which allowed for consistency and comparability. Further revisions were made until 2013, when the UN Statistical Commission officially adopted the SEEA Central Framework (SEEA-CF) as the international standard for environment economic accounting. This was complemented by two documents: SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EEA) and Applications and Extensions aligning with SNA.
The methodology behind SEEA is outlined in three documents: i) Central Framework ii) Experimental Ecosystem Accounting, and iii) Applications and Extension. The main objective of these accounts is to record different kinds of environmental data and link it with the economy.
The SEEA Central Framework mainly focuses on environmental flows, stocks of environmental assets, and economic activities related to the environment. Experimental Ecosystem Accounting, on the other hand, accounts for various types of ecosystems and their services in terms of their extent, condition, flow of services, and monetary assets. Lastly, Applications and Extension highlights how to integrate the data from these accounts with SNA in contributing towards indicators for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Global Biodiversity Targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) for policy makers and decision makers (Figure 3).
According to the 2023 Global Assessment of Environmental-Economic Accounting and Supporting Statistics, 90 countries have already implemented SEEA in their statistical compilation and disseminate the accounts on a regular basis. Other countries are still in the process of adopting the SEEA methodology.
The United Kingdom released their natural capital accounts in 2023, following the SEEA-Ecosystem Accounting methodology, which showed their natural capital assets to be worth just over £1.5 trillion with recreation and aesthetic services having the highest contribution (~29%). Just for comparison, the current UK GDP stands at around £3 trillion, which means the value of natural assets is half of its GDP, underscoring the substantial importance of environmental accounting.
The European Union’s pilot ecosystem accounts have paved the way, contributing towards various SDG indicators as well their own biodiversity targets. For example, ecosystem services contribute around 21% to the total yield in crop production, underscoring the essential role ecosystems play in supporting agricultural productivity and food security. China uses the Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP), which follows the SEEA framework. In Qinghai Province in 2000 and 2015, the GEP higher was than its GDP, showcasing that investing in large-scale restoration activities provides multiple benefits. India has also been releasing environmental accounts since 1997 whilst also publishing their ecosystem accounts consistently since 2018, each having a different theme and objective, with a specialised biodiversity thematic account.
Bhutan began its NCA journey by assessing its readiness in terms of the legal, science, policy, and capacity requirements for NCA. Below are key factors that enable Bhutan to innovate their national economic accounting system:
Bhutan’s approach to growth consists of attempts to harmonise economic prosperity with enhanced wellbeing. As a country that prioritises Gross National Happiness (GNH) rather than GDP, Bhutan emphasises the importance of environmental conservation, cultural preservation, good governance, sustainable socio-economic development and each citizen’s overall wellbeing. This holistic development philosophy places the wellbeing of its citizens and the health of the environment at the forefront of national priorities. NCA complements this approach by putting nature at the heart of economic decision making, ensuring that its values are fully recognised and integrated.
Bhutan has a strong mandate towards environmental conservation which provides a good foundation for NCA. In 2008, the GNH index was instituted in the Constitution as one of the government’s goals, ensuring its commitment towards a holistic view of development. With one of the pillars being environmental conservation, Bhutan’s 13th Five Year Plan has also emphasised the development of an NCA system that provides guidance to integrate environmental stability to economic decision making. This is also supported by Milestone 13 of Bhutan for Life’s mandate which states that natural capital valuation of key ecosystem services should be incorporated in the country’s national Five-Year Plans and the management plans of PAs. These strong policy mandates and commitments demonstrate that Bhutan has established a solid foundation and is well-prepared to implement NCA initiatives.
Bhutan has always had a strong conservation ethos in terms of environmental stewardship that is deeply engrained in its culture and policies, leading to pro-active measures for preserving its natural resources. Two statistics that highlight this are the total forest cover of the country and the Protected Area Network. The current forest cover stands at an impressive 71%, with a mandate of maintaining at least 60% cover in perpetuity. Meanwhile, the Protected Area Network covers nearly 52% of the country, revealing the country’s commitment to the conservation and sustainable management of its ecosystems. This can be attributed to a strong conservation ethos backed up by sound policies, which is another reason why NCA makes sense for Bhutan.
Bhutan possesses a wealth of natural resources and has been committed to being carbon neutral forever. Despite forests and PAs covering more than half of the country protecting natural resources and supporting a wide range of social and economic benefits, the true potential to support Bhutan’s economy, climate resilience, and social wellbeing is not adequately recognised. Traditional economic measures have failed to capture this hidden figure which can truly be seminal. NCA can be that bridge to help show Bhutan’s unwavering efforts towards conservation and management by providing a comprehensive framework for valuing and integrating natural assets into national economic planning.
Dr. Sangay is a Principal Forestry Officer at the Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Forestry Research and Training, Bhutan.
By: Sunder Subramanian
Springs are places where life is highly concentrated. The species occurring at or around springs include taxa or groups of organisms from uplands, riparian areas (adjacent to rivers), wetlands, and aquatic areas. Springs-dependent species (SDS) are organisms that require spring habitats for at least one life stage. Some SDSs exist only in spring sources and outflows, while others – dragonflies, aquatic true bugs, tiger and diving beetles, some species of flies, amphibians, fish, and other vertebrates – require spring habitats for spawning and/or larval rearing.
Wildlife adapted to drylands have developed specific strategies to minimise water loss and optimise water recycling through anatomical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations [1, 2]. Although some ungulates (hooved mammals) and herbivores can extract enough water from their food [3], most species need to drink regularly, and the availability of water strongly influences their daily, seasonal, or annual movements [4, 5].
Since standing water from precipitation is typically absent in dry environments, large herbivores have to regularly access waterpoints, such as springs, that serve as vital oases in arid regions. Waterpoints tend to be scarce and constitute distinct spaces that stand out from the surroundings. As such, they are places where herbivores become particularly vulnerable to competition, disturbance, and predation [6]. Many predator species in the mountains, including snow leopards and Eurasian lynx, also use waterpoints or springs to drink [7, 8].
Springs support not only the endemic species but also migratory ones and provide water for thousands of vertebrate and invertebrate species. Hence, understanding the factors affecting water use in space and time is a precondition for understanding movement strategies and habitat use of wildlife in arid ecosystems. Yet, in spite of the critical nature of water in arid climates, many springs remain unmapped. Without this basic information, conservation organisations and managers cannot protect these ecosystems or the species that rely on them.
It is highly likely that some springs serve as refuges for many species in isolated habitats where they can survive despite climate change-induced drying [9]. Understanding whether springs will provide hydrologic refuges from future climate change is important to biodiversity conservation but is complicated by precipitation and water flow variability among springs, data limitations, and multiple non-climate threats to groundwater-dependent ecosystems.
Clues about wildlife dependence on springs and the capacity of springs to act as refuges for isolated wildlife can be assembled from various approaches, including camera trapping, anecdotal information from local communities or pastoralists, monitoring signs of biological activity in and around springs, and remote sensing. Integrated evidence combining expert knowledge, prior experience, and research findings can be used to predict which springs may become future refuges for species of concern, strengthening the long-term effectiveness of their conservation and restoration, and informing climate adaptation for terrestrial and freshwater species.
It is becoming increasingly important to understand dynamics of competition in the use of spring water, existing or potential conflicts, and threats from conjunctive use, i.e. the coordinated use of surface water and groundwater from springs for agriculture, industry, and domestic use, livestock, and wildlife. For example, grazing is typically constrained to pastures close to water, thereby often reducing water and pasture accessible to wildlife [6]. Shared use of springs harbours the risk of disease transmission between livestock and wildlife. Further, the diversion of water for irrigation results in habitat conversion and, when associated with fencing, tends to block wildlife access to water altogether.
Thus, identifying key waterpoints and understanding their temporal and seasonal use by water-dependent wildlife, especially herbivores and other mammals, is an important first step to guide conservation planning, including anti-poaching programmes [10]. This is also relevant for booming sectors such as tourism (and the planning and regulation thereof), especially in many mountain contexts – for example, ensuring that humans remain at a certain distance from waterpoints, especially at night so that wildlife can access waterpoints without being disturbed by unpredictable human activity [11]. As such, key springs should receive some form of protection that, at a minimum, ensures unlimited access by wildlife and limits disturbance to the surrounding habitat.
Sunder Subramanian is an independent development consultant and policy advisor with three decades of highly multi-disciplinary experience including with academia, the private sector, the non-profit sector, development research, and consulting. Sunder’s main domains of work and interests include – mountain development, climate change, environment, natural resources management, biological diversity, landscapes, protected areas and conservation, water, wastewater, and sanitation, among many others.
By: Alisha Adhikari
Nestled in the rugged mountain landscape of Karnali province in western Nepal, Tatopani Rural Municipality of Jumla District offers a unique glimpse into the resilience and ingenuity of its farming communities. During my field visit to Tatopani from 18 to 24 June 2024, I gained profound insights into the area’s intricate farming systems and livelihoods as well as the challenges posed by climate and environmental change. The visit was facilitated by ICIMOD and Agriculture and Natural Resources Based Solutions (ANRBSI) Pvt. Ltd., as part of the developing Climate Resilient Agriculture Farming Plan for Tatopani Rural Municipality under the Renewable Energy for Resilient Agri-Food Systems (RERAS) project funded by the Government of Norway and led by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Agriculture in Tatopani is not just a means of sustenance; it is the backbone of the local economy and a vital component of the community’s identity. The impressive variety of crops cultivated, most notably rice (also known as paddy), barley, buckwheat, potatoes, maize, millet, walnut, apple, beans and other pulses, reflect the rich agricultural diversity of the area. A key feature of the agricultural landscape is the cultivation of an indigenous cold-tolerant rice variety, certified as Jumli Marshi rice (Oryza sativa var. japonica) by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Farmers in Tatopani practice crop rotation – they plant a series of different crops in the same plot, in order to ensure the soil doesn’t get drained of the same nutrients, and to discourage pests or weeds that prefer one specific crop. Some crops replenish nutrients used up by other crops, and crop rotation will lower the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds. For example, combinations like paddy-beans, paddy- wheat-millet are commonly followed in Jumla. Rotating crops such as legumes (e.g., beans), with cereals (e.g., rice or wheat) helps replenish soil nutrients, especially nitrogen. This reduces the need for fallow periods to restore soil fertility, enabling uninterrupted farming and increasing land use efficiency. By using specific crop rotation patterns, the farmers demonstrate a systematic approach to agriculture. Common mixed cropping patterns include maize-bean, finger millet-bean, wheat-bean, and wheat-barley-maize-apple-bean-cauliflower. This rotational and mixed cropping strategy has helped enhance soil fertility, manage pests, and diversify crop yields, ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity. Many households also engage in livestock rearing, mainly of sheep and goats, which provides additional income and nutritional support. However, adverse weather conditions and climate change impacts have posed significant challenges to agricultural productivity.
During our field visit to Tatopani Municipality, we had the opportunity to interact with the Budhbudhe Samuha, a farmers’ group with 25 dedicated women members supported by the Karnali Integrated Rural Development and Research Center (KIRDARC). Through this interaction, we gained valuable insights into the farming patterns and the challenges faced by farmers, and also into gender-based roles and responsibilities.
The group’s members shared how their traditional and innovative farming practices are adapted to the unique climatic conditions of Jumla. They explained the division of labour within their community, highlighting the significant roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture.
Women have a major role in agricultural activities, from sowing to harvesting. In addition to their economic contributions, women manage household chores and childcare, contributing to the overall wellbeing of their families. Men often take on more physically demanding tasks in agriculture and are also involved in wage labour outside the municipality. Men also tend to migrate to India for seasonal work, bringing back remittances. The families use those earnings primarily to buy food and to support their children’s education. Decision-making and financial control remains with the men, resulting in greater economic and social influence of men over women.
“Climate change has exacerbated this disparity by increasing the workload for women, who now face additional responsibilities in managing the household and agricultural tasks affected by changing weather patterns,” explained Sunita Pariyar, a member of Budhbudhe Samuha.
Climate change has significantly altered farming patterns in Tatopani Municipality. The reduction in the cold spell necessary for apple cultivation has led to a decline in yields. Additionally, the increasing infestation of pests and diseases like neck blast in rice and woolly aphid in apples has compromised crop health and productivity. The effects of climate change on agriculture have impacted the livelihood of local people in several ways.
The delicate balance between farming and livestock management has been disrupted. Erratic weather patterns and the rising population have led to a scarcity of water and forest resources, which in turn has reduced the availability of fodder for livestock. This decline in fodder production has adversely impacted livestock and the manure supply that is vital for maintaining soil fertility and crop yields. The decrease in both agricultural and livestock productivity has weakened household financial stability, increasing the community’s vulnerability to further climate shocks.
To face these challenges, farmers are adopting various practices to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture. They have embraced crop rotation and the use of botanical or natural pesticides to manage pest pressures sustainably. This approach not only optimises yields but also reduces costs and reliance on chemical pesticides, promoting a healthier environment. Labour migration has also become a common coping strategy for many farmers during the agricultural lean season, providing additional income and reducing economic vulnerability. Meanwhile, the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties, such as Jumli Marshi rice, foxtail millet, and mulching techniques further enhance resilience against climate variability, ensuring more stable yields despite fluctuating weather patterns.
The municipality’s Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) Farming Plan aims to address these challenges through targeted interventions and capacity-building initiatives. The plan was drafted following a series of consultations with diverse stakeholders from the area, and then shared with the implementing partners and UNDP for review. By fostering collaboration among farmers, researchers, and policymakers, the plan seeks to create an environment for participatory action research and innovation for building sustainable and resilient agricultural ecosystems. ANRBSI also developed a CRA Farming Plan for a second municipality, Budhinanda Rural Municipality.
My journey to Tatopani Municipality in Jumla was more than just a field visit; it was an eye-opening experience that deepened my appreciation for the resilience and resourcefulness of local farming communities. As I reflect on this experience, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the RERAS project, ICIMOD and ANRBSI Pvt. Ltd. for providing me with the opportunity to learn from and contribute to this transformative farming plan. The heart of Jumla beats with the rhythm of its farms, and it is a privilege to witness and support their journey toward a resilient and prosperous future.
Alisha Adhikari was a member of the ANRBSI team and is currently studying for a master’s degree in economics at Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
Mentor: Kailash Bhatta, Climate Resilient Agriculture Associate of ICIMOD
In the serene village of Sadhikhola in Surkhet district, two brothers, Chandra Bahadur GC and Tek Bahadur Gharti, are rewriting the narratives of farming in Karnali province, mid-western Nepal. Originally from Surkhet, they travelled to India where they were migrant workers for many years. Their journey from labourers in India to pioneering organic farmers in Nepal epitomises resilience, innovation, and a profound commitment to their homeland.
Tek Bahadur Gharti worked as a security guard, and Chandra Bahadur GC was an employee at a mineral water plant for 16 years in India. Then they decided to leave behind their gruelling lives abroad to pursue a dream rooted in the soil of their homeland. Longing for self-sufficiency and a connection to their roots, they returned to Nepal. Today, they cultivate 24 ropanis (131,424 sq. ft.) of fertile land, growing a variety of vegetables, including cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, chilli, and brinjal or aubergine.
Recalling their struggles, Tek Bahadur shared, “We felt humiliated and insecure when we worked for others. It was not an ideal life. Now, working on our own farm gives us pride and dignity.”
Initially, the brothers relied on synthetic pesticides, unaware of the long-term harm they caused. Frequent nausea, itching, and illness led them to question their methods, which can often be expensive. Through The Green Resilient Agriculture Productive Ecosystems (GRAPE) project, they were introduced to farming practices which are climate resilient, and nature-positive alternative solutions to the unwise use of chemicals. Though sceptical at first – vegetables grown without chemicals, often referred to as organic, don’t always look as visually appealing as their pesticide-grown counterparts – they persisted.
Chandra explained, “The first year was challenging, but over time, we witnessed the benefits. Today, we’ve reduced chemical pesticide use by 85% on our farm. Not only has this improved our income, but it has also ensured our children are better nourished, and we can now afford other essential expenses like education.”
A pivotal moment came when their village was selected for demonstration of a suite of climate-resilient agricultural solutions including ‘Vermi wash’ techniques that they learned in Sikkim, a state in northeastern India, during an exposure visit organised by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Vermi wash is extracted as the liquid run-off from vermi-composting pits and contains plant growth hormones, enzymes, and essential nutrients. It acts as a natural pesticide and fertiliser, improving crop health while maintaining ecological balance. This technique is one of the many tools introduced by ICIMOD to ensure that farmers transition smoothly to organic farming.
Neighbouring communities and other districts in Karnali have embraced their methods, signalling a regional shift towards sustainable agriculture. “We work for ourselves now, and that gives us peace,” says Tek Bahadur. The farm has become a family endeavour, with their entire household involved, and they hire additional labour when needed, paying fair wages, and offering meals.
The GRAPE project, supported by the European Union, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Germany. This project was led by the German development agency, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) with ICIMOD as the lead partner for the collaborative action research component. It aimed to revolutionise agriculture in the Himalayan region. It focuses on promoting organic farming, enhancing soil fertility, and reducing dependency on chemical pesticides and fertilisers. By introducing sustainable techniques like vermi-wash – a liquid bio-fertiliser made from vermicompost – the project empowers farmers to adopt environmentally friendly and cost-effective practices.
The ‘action research’ component of the GRAPE project, led by ICIMOD, concluded in October 2024. Action research emphasises participatory research conducted with, for, and by people. Building on GRAPE’s successful outcomes, ICIMOD is now advancing its work through the Himalayan Resilience Enabling Action Programme (HI-REAP). Part of the Climate Action for Resilience Asia (CARA) initiative of the United Kingdom Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), HI-REAP is further enhancing capacity while introducing innovative Nature-based Solutions (NbS). NbS are actions which encourage the protection, sustainable management, and restoration of natural or modified ecosystems to address societal challenges while simultaneously supporting human wellbeing and biodiversity benefits. With promising results already demonstrating significant potential to transform agriculture in Nepal and the broader region, ICIMOD’s ongoing efforts under HI-REAP aim to scale these innovations for wider impact.
“We are happy to see that the Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoLMAC) in Karnali province has mainstreamed the Community Learning Centre (CLC) model and Climate-resilient agriculture (CRA) practices into their annual action plan. This will ensure their integration into broader agricultural policy, planning and practice, creating long-term impact.” — Kamal Aryal, Sustainable Agriculture Specialist at ICIMOD
While the Gharti brothers have achieved remarkable success, challenges remain. They rely on rented equipment for ploughing and irrigation. Purchasing a motor pump and a small tractor could significantly ease their workload. With annual earnings of NPR 1,200,000–1,500,000 (USD 8,800 – 11,000), they are willing to invest if provided with a 50% subsidy, which they believe is within reach given their farm’s profitability.
Despite these obstacles, their journey is an inspiration for neighbouring communities. Chandra frequently visits the Faculty of Agriculture in Mid West University in Surkhet to share his experiences, encouraging other farmers to adopt organic practices. Their farm has become a model for sustainable agriculture, influencing farmers across Karnali province and beyond.
The Gharti brothers’ climate-resilient agricultural farming journey aligns seamlessly with the Karnali Agriculture Development Strategy (KADS), developed by MoLMAC, which aims to transform agriculture through sustainable practices. As part of a larger vision to propel Karnali towards organic farming, KADS emphasises regenerative agriculture, innovative technology, and community empowerment.
The draft version of KADS was presented at a recent workshop in Surkhet in the presence of Honourable Ministers of Karnali Province, including Honourable Minister Mr Binod Kumar Shah, Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperative; Honourable Minister, Mr Rajeev Bikram Shah, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Planning; Honourable Minister, Mr Ghanashyam Bhandari, Ministry of Social Development; Honourable Minister Ms Bijaya Budda, Ministry of Water Resource and Energy Development; Honourable State Minister Ms Gamata BK, Ministry of State for Physical Infrastructure and Urban Development; Honourable Suryanath Yogi, Vice-Chair of Karnali Province Planning Commission; Dr Chudamani Paudel, Chief Secretary of Karnali Province.
At the workshop, the Director General of ICIMOD, Dr Pema Gyamtsho remarked, “This comprehensive strategy provides a clear roadmap to address the overwhelming challenges of climate change and youth out-migration. Nepal, with its abundant natural and human resources, has the potential to transform agriculture into a cornerstone of development, reversing the trend of youth seeking opportunities abroad. Achieving this vision requires inter-ministerial coordination, regenerative farming practices, and addressing challenges like pests through sustainable methods.
Key priorities include securing financial resources, strengthening institutions, and leveraging technology like agro-ecological zoning. ICIMOD is committed to supporting these efforts, but success will depend on collaboration among governments, communities, and partners. By working together, we can create sustainable growth and opportunities for future generations.”
Hon. Minister Rajeev Bikram Shah, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Planning added, “We need to reignite a sense of pride in being a farmer. Our fathers were farmers, yet we often find ourselves moving away from agriculture. However, there is hope – our youth are beginning to return to farming, even taking the initiative to expand agricultural lands. This trend is a testament to their resilience and potential, and it is our duty to support and encourage them in transforming agriculture into a viable and dignified livelihood”.
The story of Chandra and Tek Bahadur Gharti is not just about farming – it is about reclaiming dignity, fostering independence, and building a sustainable future. Their farm stands as a beacon of hope for a region seeking to balance tradition with innovation.
Through the combined efforts of strategies like KADS, initiatives like GRAPE, and the resilience of farmers, Karnali has the potential to become a hub for regenerative agriculture. As the Gharti brothers demonstrate, with the right support, the land can provide not just sustenance but also prosperity and pride.
The journey to transform Karnali is underway, and with inspiring stories like these, the future looks promising. Together, policymakers, institutions, and farmers can ensure that agriculture becomes a cornerstone of sustainable development in Nepal.
The Gharti brothers have not only revolutionised their farm but also ignited hope across Karnali. Their story is a testament to the transformative power of local commitment, innovative strategies like KADS, and the potential of agriculture to restore dignity and prosperity to communities.
As the Gharti brothers put it, “When we farm our own land, we work with pride and dignity. This is the life we always wanted.”
Every winter, the quality of air in Kathmandu city plummets as it is shrouded by smog and pollution particles emitted from a number of sources. The sources vary from transport, industry, and domestic fuel to forest fires, not to mention the pollutants brought over from distant sources by atmospheric circulation. Not just capital Kathmandu’s air pollution level but also of rest of Nepal’s – much like the case of its neighbouring countries – is a persistent problem and one that has been increasing in severity. A recent report estimates that in 2021, more than 48,000 deaths could have been caused by air pollution alone in the country.
In response to this severe issue, Nepal’s Department of Environment (DoEnv), under its Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE), and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) have joined forces to combat air pollution and promote sustainable environmental practices. On 6 November 2024, both institutions signed a letter of intent (LoI) and committed to more efforts in addressing air quality challenges in the country through a combination of scientific research, capacity building, and collaborative actions.
The DoEnv plays a crucial role in Nepal’s environmental management efforts. Tasked with enforcing the country’s Environment Protection Act (2019) and Environment Protection Regulation (2020), the department is responsible for improving air quality, enforcing environmental standards, promoting climate adaptation practices, and creating climate-resilient communities. With an aim to tackle air pollution in the country, it has also partnered with ICIMOD in setting up a national network of air quality monitoring stations, and a dashboard to track the state of air pollution in the country.
Reflecting on the partnership, DoEnv Director General Subedi said, “Environmental considerations must be central to development if we are to avoid long-term challenges. Despite limited resources and expertise, the Government of Nepal is prioritising air pollution mitigation. Through our collaboration with ICIMOD and its network, we hope to overcome these challenges and address the risks posed by polluted air and make a difference that transcends borders.”
The department has also continued a critical service by conducting and supporting the need for national-level air quality monitoring in the country. The results have been captured in national air quality reports (available for download here) that reveal a worrying trend wherein winter and early spring months are shown to have the most polluted days across Nepal.
While the purpose of the collaboration is to strengthen their long-standing partnership in air quality management, the DoEnv and ICIMOD will also engage in the following:
Reflecting on the shared goals of the two organisations, Dr. Gyamtsho, Director General of ICIMOD, said, “The Department of Environment is an invaluable partner for ICIMOD and we are eager to work together to address one of the most urgent planetary crises – air pollution. Polluted air impacts people’s health, well-being, and livelihoods. We are committed to supporting Nepal’s efforts to take the lead in finding effective, regionally impactful solutions.”
This partnership between ICIMOD and the DoEnv could be a pivotal step in Nepal’s journey towards clean air and a healthy environment. As a developing country that must make critical choices that influence its national development goals and the well-being of its citizens, this partnership will directly contribute to better climate action in Nepal. By combining scientific expertise and governmental policy, the collaboration aims to not only improve air quality in Nepal but also serve as a model for regional action against air pollution. Together, ICIMOD and the DoEnv have been displaying the requisite commitment to creating a sustainable and resilient future for Nepal and the greater HKH region.
ICIMOD’s commitment to reducing climate and environmental risks
As part of our strategy to reduce climate and environmental risks, ICIMOD collaborates with its Regional Member Countries on air quality management under its Stimulating Action for Clean Air programme. ICIMOD aims to comprehensively understand air quality issues in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region by generating scientific data, advancing knowledge, and fostering collaborations on clean air initiatives.
“Our village was hit by several landslides, leaving us without electricity for over 10 days.”
Lamin Maya Tamang , a resident of Bhagwate village
“Our water supply system, which ran on electricity, stopped working during these rains. We had to return to the old Bhagwate Spring, a source we hadn’t used for years. This forgotten spring became our lifeline in this difficult time,” says Lamin Maya Tamang, a resident of Bhagwate village in Namobuddha municipality, Kavrepalanchok dsitrict, central Nepal. Bhagwate was one of the areas hit hardest by the extreme rainfall events of September 2024.
From 26 to 28 September 2024, torrential rainfall triggered devastating floods and landslides across Nepal, resulting in widespread destruction. According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA), the hardest-hit areas included Sindhuli, Kavrepalanchok , Sindhupalchok, and Dhading districts, as well as the Kathmandu Valley. Water levels in 23 rivers surged above the danger mark, and rainfall exceeded 200mm as recorded by 77 monitoring stations, leading to unprecedented loss of life, with over 250 deaths, 178 injured and 17 missing people, and damage to homes, water systems, roads, bridges, schools, and healthcare facilities. In response, the government declared 71 municipalities across 20 districts as disaster-affected zones.
The September disaster underscored the vital role of local springs as lifelines. In villages like Bhagwate and Bhugdeu in Kavrepalanchok district, residents turned to these almost-forgotten, but enduring water sources for survival when their modern water supply systems failed.
Located in Namobuddha municipality’s ward 2, Bhagwate Spring once served around 20–25 households before it dried up in 2014 due to drought. With the drying up of the spring, residents began digging wells or relying on other nearby seasonal springs. In 2019, the municipality dug a borewell to supply water to 100 households.
The September 2024 disaster disrupted the centralised system, leaving the Bhagwate villagers without water for two weeks. In this crisis, the Bhagwate Spring, revived in 2021 through a collaborative venture between the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and local authorities, became a crucial water source yet again. With a maximum water flow of 1.5 litres per minute as of October 2024, the spring has regained its status as a reliable water source, and locals are now considering it for agriculture and household needs.
A similar story unfolded in Bhugdeu village, Bethanchowk rural municipality, where approximately 120 households once relied on two local springs, Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero. This changed when a larger water supply project tapped a distant spring, Darke Kholsa, and distributed its water through communal taps across the village. Over time, as each household got a private tap connected to the Bhugdeu river – courtesy of the ‘Ek Ghar Ek Dhara’ scheme – these communal taps and local springs were gradually abandoned.
However, after the September 2024 disaster, when the main supply from the Bhugdeu River was disrupted, the water from Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero, which had only served four households and four cattle sheds after the Ek Ghar Ek Dhara came into effect, became the only water sources for 120 households all over again.
“We had to dig out and clean the buried springs we had long forgotten about.”
Sudarshan Thapa, a resident of Bhugdeu village
The springs, once abandoned, became their lifeline, providing essential water during and after the crisis. Reflecting on this, Sudarshan Thapa, a Bhugdeu villager, says, “This taught us that local springs are vital. We need to preserve them not just for emergencies, but also for long-term water security.”
The villagers got together to clean and conserve Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero. They also revived other springs, such as Darke Kuwa, which had been buried by a landslide two decades ago but is now serving eight households. Similarly, Darke Dhara, previously swept away by floods, was restored following the September calamity and is now providing drinking water to 14 households.
These two stories from Namobuddha municipality and Bethanchowk rural municipality offer a glimpse into a broader issue across the hill and mountain settlements of Nepal during disasters. Large-scale water systems – such as river-lift schemes, deep boreholes, and one-tap-per-household initiatives – have often led communities to neglect local springs that could have been conserved and protected with minimal efforts. Yet, when centralised water infrastructure fails, communities return to these local and small sources for drinking water, sanitation, and even agricultural uses. The recent disaster has underscored the vital role of local springs, reminding communities of the urgent need to safeguard these resources to ensure reliable and sustainable access to water in times of crisis.
A recent study in Kavrepalanchok district points to an urgent need for action to preserve vital spring sources. Conducted through a citizen science initiative and supported by ICIMOD’s Himalayan Resilience Enabling Action Programme (HI-REAP), the study involved training community members to map springs and document their status across seven municipalities in the district. The alarming results indicate that approximately one-quarter of the springs in the region have dried up and 54 percent of the remaining active springs have been showing decreased flow over the past decade. The causes are both natural and man-made, with earthquakes identified as a primary disruptor. Earthquakes, by altering underground water channels, have significantly contributed to the drying up of springs. Prolonged droughts, too, have taken a toll, impacting flow and resilience.
Apart from natural forces, human activities such as infrastructure development, urbanisation, and road construction have further stressed these water sources. Alarmingly, many springs are not accounted for in planning processes, resulting in their decline. Other contributing factors include neglectful maintenance and land-use changes such as through deforestation. Each of these adds pressure on these critical resources, which are too often ignored until emergencies arise.
Springs are vital sources of drinking water for over 10 million people living in the mountainous areas of Nepal. They must be preserved and managed proactively to sustain Nepal’s water security. Protecting these sources is not only about preserving tradition – it is about ensuring reliable, resilient access to water in the face of growing environmental challenges such as the recent extreme event. As efforts continue in Kavrepalanchok to restore the modern water supply infrastructure after the disaster of September, it is essential to remember the value of springs, those hardy natural sources that remain steady when all else fails.
Hundreds of millions of people across the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) and Himalayan Foothills (HFH) are still breathing hazardous air today, as the Air Quality Index in cities in Pakistan crossed 1,000+ and in Delhi hit 450+, closing schools and causing disruption to flights.
Air pollution is sometimes called “the invisible killer” because the fine particle contaminants suspended in the air we so often breathe in this region are usually so hard to see.
Last weekend, however, that changed, when NASA released images that showed the smog engulfing South Asia has grown so big that you can see it from space.
Sightseers’ photographs from one of the world’s Seven Wonders, the Taj Mahal, meanwhile provided a chilling demonstration, at ground level, of the extent to which visibility had fallen due to the smog.
Particulate matter, visible or not, is devastating to human health: entering not just our lungs, but also our bloodstreams, to impact every organ in the human body.
Researchers who gathered earlier this year at ICIMOD’s headquarters in Kathmandu, a city that sometimes vies with Delhi, Lahore and Dhaka for the title of world’s most polluted city, stressed how hazardous pollution is not only to respiration, but also to heart and brain function, and cognitive development.
It also ups the risks of chronic conditions, cancer, and strokes, and medics call it the region’s top public health risk. Worldwide it caused 8.1 million deaths in 2021, states the State of Global Air Report.
The impacts on children are particularly grave: among children under five, exposure to air pollution is linked to the death of more than 700,000 children.
As well as premature birth, low birth weight, asthma and lung diseases, pollution can result in long-term developmental issues that can ricochet down a child’s entire life course in terms of educational attainment.
While air pollution does not discriminate, high population sizes and high levels of poverty hugely compound the levels of exposure and risks faced by people in South Asia, researchers say.
The poorest populations often live or work in closest proximity to pollution sources.
They also lack the resources to adopt coping mechanisms, such as buying household air purifiers, or, more drastically, leaving high-pollution zones during spikes, or to switch to lower emissions heating and cooking sources.
Earlier this year, ICIMOD convened global experts to increase understanding of and awareness about the impacts of the region's air emergency on poverty and health, and to increase the speed and scale of investment in solutions.
As pollution remains at severe levels, we are releasing a series of films recorded at that event, which feature
“Air pollution accounted for 8.1 million deaths globally in 2021,” says our partner in this work, US research group, Health Effects Institute. “[And] many more millions of people are living with debilitating chronic diseases, putting tremendous strains on health care systems, economies, and societies.”
"The smog we can see from space right now is destroying our lungs, our hearts, our brains, it is hammering our hospitals, and our economies and accelerating the loss of our frozen water stores," Pema Gyamtsho, Director General of ICIMOD, who earlier this year convened a major science-policy dialogue on air pollution with key regional stakeholders in Thimphu, Bhutan. "We need an air pollution revolution in our region, and ICIMOD is standing by to support diverse stakeholders – from science to policy to industry – to bring about urgently needed change."
In the last week of September 2024, Kathmandu and other parts of Nepal experienced heavy flooding, claiming more than 200 lives with many still missing. Streets and settlements that once buzzed with life were swallowed by water, sweeping away homes, vehicles, and any sense of safety. "No one saw this coming in Kathmandu," many of us said, but perhaps we should have. While the intensity of the flood was unexpected, the devastation felt tragically inevitable due to unplanned settlements in or near floodplains. These floods serve as a grim reminder of the growing vulnerability posed by both climate change and non-climatic factors that increase the risks and frequency of such unprecedented disasters.
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is particularly vulnerable, grappling with the mounting challenges of climate change and increasing natural hazards and environmental degradation, threatening the lives and livelihoods of more than one billion people. In addition to these environmental stresses, the region is undergoing rapid socioeconomic shifts marked by increased migration, urbanisation, conflicts, persistent inequalities, and technological development such as artificial intelligence (AI). Along with these converging trends and critical shifts, the world is already experiencing a triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, with the HKH at the frontline of this crisis. This amplifies uncertainties across multiple systems, underscoring the urgent need for foresight.
Many of us may wish we possess ‘the ability to predict what will happen or be needed in the future’. Beyond this everyday use of the word, ‘foresight’ is a term used in social science, international development and policymaking which refers to the disciplined analysis of alternative futures, with the aim of making better-informed decisions, having considered future eventualities, scenarios and outcomes. In times marked by uncertainty and looming threats, foresight emerges as an essential tool to anticipate potential risks such as the unforeseen flood in Kathmandu, and delve deeper into signs of approaching change. It gives insight into potential future scenarios that can drastically affect lives and livelihoods. Foresight helps “strengthen resilience against the unexpected” by translating future uncertainty into present actionable decisions. It also provides a framework for governments, public organisations, and the private sector to identify pathways to mitigate future risks. UNDP has adopted foresight approaches for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and it is now increasingly common for development institutions to develop strategies in the face of an uncertain future.
To kickstart future thinking and introduce a foresight mindset in the HKH region, ICIMOD organised a consultative workshop in September 2023. The workshop highlighted the pressing need to understand foresight concepts and strengthen the capacity to use various foresight tools effectively, especially among government agencies, non-governmental organisations, academic and research organisations, and development practitioners.
ICIMOD has adopted the participatory foresight methodology specifically for the HKH region adapted from the foresight framework developed by Foresight4Food (Figure 1). The foresight framework employs futures thinking and scenario analysis engaging a wide range of stakeholders with scientific evidence and application of several participatory tools such as causal loop diagrams (CLDs) – which show how different variables and factors in a system are causally interrelated, rich pictures – which summarise a situation through drawings, impact-uncertainty matrix to explore and calculate critical uncertainties, and social, technological, economic, environmental, political, legal and ethical (STEEPLE) analysis. The foresight approach employs systems thinking, a holistic approach to understanding the complexities and dynamics of various systems. This helps stakeholders envision potential future risks and vulnerabilities while also recognising opportunities for strategic future planning and decision-making.
Building on this momentum, ICIMOD held a six-day training workshop in collaboration with Foresight4Food in August 2024 in Dhulikhel, Nepal. The event brought together 51 participants representing over 30 organisations from six countries in the region – Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan – and from the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Kingdom. The training was targeted towards government agencies, non-governmental organisations, academic and research organisations, and development practitioners who can benefit from effectively applying foresight tools in their line of work.
During the six-day training, participants actively engaged in hands-on exercises organised into four thematic groups: migration, climate change adaptation, pastoralism, and disaster risk reduction (DRR). The workshop followed the foresight framework, structured into four key phases, where participants engaged in a variety of participatory tools (Figure 1). The application of tools such as the CLDs, STEEPLE analysis and impact uncertainty matrix showed the participants how to unravel the complexities and gain a better understanding of a system’s components, interconnections, patterns and behaviour over time.
Specific foresight tools further encouraged participants to think beyond their existing knowledge; these included: rich pictures, visioning – the process of developing a ‘vision’ or aspirational goal, four scenarios – developing narratives of possible futures, and back-casting – visioning a future situation and then working back to identify the steps needed to get there. These sessions sparked creativity, enthusiasm, and exchange of knowledge, ideas and insights. They were insightful in understanding and mapping complexities and identifying transformational pathways of change, and also highly enjoyable, as evidenced by the creative collaboration of the interdisciplinary groups.
As we engaged in scenario-building exercises, it was interesting to note that one scenario could lead to multiple implications that may be favourable to one group but not to another. The complexity and interplay of varying interests and conflicting ideas were highlighted through role-playing activities. While role plays sparked creativity, fun, and laughter, they also illustrated the realities of competing interests and the plural outcomes for different stakeholders, as no matter what the future holds, there will always be winners and losers. This demonstrates how crucial it is to integrate gender and social inclusion into the foresight process, to add valuable perspectives, in order to help ensure that diverse implications of scenarios are considered, and that potential vulnerabilities and inequalities are addressed while developing future scenarios.
At the outset of the training, the participants were eager to tackle one pivotal question: how can foresight tools be effectively applied in their work? After successful completion of the training, they were better equipped to use foresight tools to guide decision-making and policy. They identified ways to weave foresight into their work and also made commitments. One of the significant outcomes of the training workshop is the application of foresight methods in three areas: migration, climate change adaptation, and rangeland management in the region. These foresight activities will span across diverse landscapes of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. By adopting a foresight approach, civil society organisations and policymakers can support anticipating the challenges ahead, ensuring that development strategies are resilient and sustainable. Bringing a futures lens into their respective lines of work can be a positive way to start a new journey. As we advance, the foresight approaches and tools that we trained the participants in and will be using in different lines of work will also help to further develop a robust framework that not only helps to anticipate the future but actively helps to shape it, ensuring that the region is resilient amidst the uncertainties of tomorrow.
“My husband was killed, and you are enjoying a ride!” cried a grief-stricken woman, her voice full of resentment. It was a hazy afternoon as we drove along the embankment of the Mechi River in Bahundangi, eastern Nepal. With us was Shankar Luitel, a dedicated conservationist and citizen scientist renowned for his work on elephants, who advised her to contact the local authorities as we passed. Later, we asked him about the incident. With a heavy heart, he explained that two years before, the woman’s husband had been killed by an elephant. Just 10 kilometres away, across the border in Naxalbari, West Bengal, India, a 15-year-old boy weeps inconsolably, recounting the day his father succumbed to fatal injuries from an elephant attack. The boy was then forced to leave school to shoulder the burden of supporting his family. In Bhutan’s Samtse district, the tragedy repeats as elephants frequently visit landfill sites by the highways, placing schoolchildren in constant danger. These cases might have gone unheard and unknown to many but they echo countless stories of loss and suffering in the lowlands of the Kangchenjunga Landscape, where human-elephant conflict has torn apart families, leaving behind widows and orphans.
The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas, shared by Bhutan, India, and Nepal, is a biodiversity hotspot that faces increasing threats from human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Among these conflicts, human-elephant conflict (HEC) stands out as a significant concern, particularly as endangered Asiatic elephants migrate through this region. Elephas maximus indica is the largest living land mammal in the Asian mainland; females can reach up to 240 cm in height and weigh up to 3,500 kg, while males have a maximum height of 300 cm and can weigh up to 6000 kg. Despite their large size, elephants are known as gentle giants – nomadic herbivores who range across large distances in search of food and water, keeping out of the midday sun under the shade of vegetation, bathing in water or covering themselves with mud or soil. Elephants are considered intelligent, emotional creatures, and have been known to exhibit behaviours linked to grief, learning, compassion and memory. They live in matriarchal societies made up of females and offspring; males usually live in smaller groups or alone.
However, habitat loss, fragmentation, and human encroachment into wildlife territories have escalated encounters between humans and elephants – usually lone male elephants – leading to fatalities and injuries on both sides, and economic losses. As in other parts of Asia, elephants also hold profound cultural significance in the KL – one example is the elephant-headed Lord Ganesha, the widely revered Hindu god known as the ‘remover of obstacles’ and bringer of good luck. As a result, tolerance to elephants in general is high. It is important to build on this to address drivers of conflict and promote human-elephant coexistence.
Over the years, the expansion of human populations into natural habitats has worsened HEC. Human activities have degraded elephant habitats, leaving elephants with limited access to food and water. As a result, they increasingly wander into human settlements in search of sustenance, often with devastating consequences. Elephants raid crops, destroy homes, and sometimes cause human casualties. In response, communities defend themselves using various means, some of which can be fatal to elephants. This cycle of violence only perpetuates the conflict, harming both humans and elephants.
One of the key factors exacerbating this conflict is habitat loss. Elephants are large herbivores that require extensive areas of land to meet their dietary needs. With shrinking forests and dwindling food sources, elephants are forced to forage in human-dominated landscapes, such as agricultural fields and villages. This not only leads to significant economic losses for farmers but also puts elephants at risk of retaliatory attacks. The growth of tea plantations and the expansion of agriculture have disrupted the natural movement and feeding patterns of elephants. Traditional migratory routes have been blocked or fragmented, further compounding the problem. The consequences of these encounters are not just physical; they leave lasting emotional scars on affected communities. Families, particularly those who lose loved ones or suffer significant property damage, are often left with deep-seated fear and resentment towards elephants, creating a hostile environment for conservation efforts.
As elephants increasingly frequent human settlements, they have also altered their feeding habits. These animals, known for their remarkable intelligence and highly developed sense of smell, are drawn to human foods such as cereal flour, salt, homemade brews, and livestock feed. This shift in their diet is driven by the scarcity of natural food sources in their natural habitat and their ability to detect food from great distances. When elephants invade human settlements in search of these foods, the results are often disastrous, and the social consequences are profound. In many cases, the loss of a family member, particularly a male head of household, can force children to abandon their education to support the family.
The economic and emotional toll of these conflicts extends beyond the immediate physical damage, affecting the social fabric of entire communities. Moreover, the economic costs of HEC are significant. The expenses associated with protecting crops, combined with the losses incurred due to wildlife damage, have driven some farmers to abandon their land. In the north of West Bengal, eastern India, many farmers are leaving their fields fallow, which threatens local food security and economic stability. Traditional deterrent methods, such as fences, firecrackers, and sirens, have proven ineffective with time, as elephants quickly learn to bypass or dismantle these barriers. In some tragic cases, the use of firecrackers has even led to fatal accidents for both humans and elephants.
In addition to habitat loss, poor waste management is also exacerbating HEC. Improperly disposed food waste attracts elephants, increasing the likelihood of encounters. In Bhutan’s Samtse district, bordering the Indian state of West Bengal, landfill sites beside the highways attract elephants, endangering residents, including schoolchildren. Communities need improved waste disposal practices, such as secure landfill sites and waste incineration, alongside education programmes on responsible waste management. By reducing food attractants, the risk of human-elephant encounters can be minimised, while reducing the risk of harm to elephants from consuming plastics and other toxic materials that are dumped in these sites.
One of the primary challenges in managing HEC is the scarcity of human resources and equipment. In many affected areas, there are insufficient numbers of wildlife rangers and forest guards to respond to potential conflict situations promptly. Additionally, inadequate equipment and early warning systems hinder the ability to alert communities to the presence of elephants. Another issue is the inefficiency of compensation mechanisms for victims of HEC. Lengthy procedures and inadequate monetary compensation discourage people from seeking compensation, leading to distrust and antipathy towards government agencies. This also erodes community's willingness to participate in conservation efforts, further aggravating the conflict.
Pathways to coexistence: mitigation strategies
Despite the challenges, several strategies offer hope for advancing coexistence between humans and elephants. One of the most promising approaches is habitat restoration. Healthy ecosystems provide elephants with the food and water they need, reducing their need to venture into human settlements. Restoring degraded habitats and creating wildlife corridors can enable elephants to move between fragmented habitats without encountering human populations.
Empowering local communities and wildlife authorities is another critical step in managing HEC. Education and awareness programmes, coupled with training in wildlife management, can equip communities with the knowledge and skills needed to mitigate conflict. Establishing Rapid Response Teams (RRT) and equipping and training them to handle emergencies can also reduce the likelihood of fatal or dangerous encounters. Livelihood diversification offers a sustainable solution to HEC. By encouraging farmers to cultivate crops that are less palatable to elephants, communities can create buffer zones around more palatable crops, thereby reducing the risk of crop raids by the pachyderms. Governments can further support these efforts by offering financial incentives, such as subsidies or tax breaks, to encourage farmers to adopt sustainable agricultural practices.
Finally, improving compensation and insurance systems is essential for rebuilding trust between affected communities and government agencies. Transparent, efficient, and equitable compensation processes can ensure that victims of HEC receive timely and adequate support, which can reduce the likelihood of retaliatory killings of elephants and foster greater tolerance for wildlife.
In the eastern Himalayas, elephants are transboundary animals and are unstoppable when they migrate across international borders in search of food and water. So, the key to preventing and managing HEC in the region is transboundary cooperation. It is crucial that Bhutan, India, and Nepal collaborate on research, share information about elephant movement, form transboundary HEC prevention and mitigation teams, and develop joint management strategies to manage human-elephant interactions and conflict. It is only through cross-border cooperation that governments, conservation organisations, and local communities can pool resources and knowledge to address the complex challenges posed by HEC.
ICIMOD recognises transboundary cooperation as the key to finding long-lasting solutions to HEC. It is working to bring the three nations together to prioritise HWC as a central issue for regional development, and has launched a dedicated initiative to address this transboundary concern.
Transboundary cooperation can also help restore connectivity between fragmented habitats along the borders, helping elephants use and migrate safely between habitats without encountering human settlements and other developments. These efforts may be the last glimmer of hope to lessen the sorrows of widows in settlements like Bahundangi, restore children’s right to education in Naxalbari, and ease the schoolchildren’s persistent fear of elephant encounters in Samtse.
(Kesang Wangchuk is a biodiversity specialist at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.)
The Hindu Kush Himalaya is the most populated mountain region in the world with 270 million people. Around one-third of the population is facing food insecurity, and half of them are suffering from malnutrition with more severe impacts on children and women. Ecosystem services from the HKH region, particularly freshwater services, directly and indirectly impact 2.1 billion people (nearly one-fourth of the world population) living in upstream and downstream areas of river basins – so what happens in the mountains impacts people living beyond the mountain region.
The region hosts all or parts of four global biodiversity hotspots – the Himalaya, the Indo-Burma, the Mountains of Central Asia, and the Mountains of Southwest China – supporting diverse flora and fauna. People in the HKH region are experiencing both climate change and biodiversity losses. These drivers of change are interwoven and have significant impact on the lives and livelihoods of mountain people as well as their capacity to respond or adapt to these changes. The major livelihoods of mountain communities are agriculture, livestock, tourism, and the collection and trading of medicinal and aromatic plants. These livelihoods are significantly and adversely impacted by climate change and biodiversity losses. Major adverse impacts include crop loss and failure, fodder shortage, livestock deaths, decrease in the availability of medicinal and aromatic plants, and degradation of aesthetic experiences (which impact mood and wellbeing). In many areas, communities have abandoned agriculture and pastoralism in response to climate change impacts. These impacts have further exacerbated the socioeconomic vulnerability of mountain communities, including food and nutrition insecurity. They have also resulted in the displacement of populations from high-risk areas and have exacerbated the existing trends of labour out-migration from the region, for livelihoods and other social, economic and political drivers. Adaptation assessments reports have consistently indicated that adaptation actions are happening at an incremental pace, are mostly autonomous, and are at individual and community scales.
Mountain communities in the HKH region are dependent on meltwater from snow and glaciers, in addition to rain, to meet their water needs. Water supply systems in downstream regions, including in densely populated urban settlements, are dependent on meltwater for domestic and commercial purposes. Along with growing demand and insufficient infrastructure, climate change is likely to further exacerbate water shortages in the region. Climate change-related hazards in the region have caused significant loss of lives, and loss and damage of property, infrastructure, and tangible and intangible cultural heritage. These disasters have led to a loss of traditional knowledge, increased social and economic burdens, and caused psychological stress and displacement. Climate-related hazards are projected to increase in the HKH region in the future, adding investment burdens with long-term implications for national and regional economies.
In order to adapt to the impacts of climate change, most countries in the region have developed National Adaptation Plans and Strategies and are now gearing up to implement them. ‘UAE-Belem work programme’ convened by UNFCCC is working on refining and developing indicators for measuring progress towards the Global Goal on adaptation in eight domains – water, food, health, ecosystems, infrastructure and human settlements, poverty and livelihoods, cultural heritage, and policy cycle. Parties, intergovernmental organisations, UN agencies and INGOs have submitted more than 5000 indicators; COP29 is a key event to further advance this work.
This is a pivotal moment for mountain countries and communities to ensure that the eight domains sufficiently cover aspects important to mountain areas. Common indicators for all types of geographies may not capture the sensitivity of mountain systems to climate change and may not capture the effectiveness of adaptation actions. For instance, we must ensure that the water domain covers springs; the food domain must cover adaptation on agriculture and food supply chains, and the revival of abandoned land; ecosystems must cover rangelands; human settlements must cover vernacular architecture, etc. Furthermore, it is critical to ensure that the indicators reflect and are relevant to the specific context of mountains to capture the progress made in adaptation (or lack of), and enable credible flows of finance to this region.
Background of UAE-Belem Work Programme (source: Global goal on adaptation | UNFCCC)
The Paris Agreement of 2015 established the global goal on adaptation of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the temperature goal referred to in its Article 2.
At CMA 3 in 2021, Parties established the Glasgow-Sharm el Sheikh work programme on the global goal on adaptation. Upon completion of the work programme in 2023, CMA 5 adopted the UAE Framework on Global Climate Resilience, and also launched a two-year UAE–Belém work programme on indicators.
At CMA 5, Parties adopted the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, as part of the UAE Consensus. The framework includes a range of thematic and dimensional targets for climate adaptation and resilience.
CMA 5 also established a two-year UAE – Belém work programme, on the development of indicators for measuring progress achieved towards the targets outlined in the framework, and Parties provided guidance on the structure and modalities of the work programme at SB 60.
SB 60 requested their Chairs to convene technical experts to assist in the technical work under the United Arab Emirates–Belém work programme.
In the pristine highlands of Bhutan, many local communities engage in the traditional practice of yak herding, which plays a crucial role in Bhutan’s agricultural landscape. This is particularly the case in 11 highland districts, where yak herding engages over 1,100 households and contributes approximately 4% to the nation’s livestock production. Yaks – a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayas – primarily graze in rangelands, locally known as Tsamdros, which encompass permanent grasslands and forested areas.
The governance of Tsamdros has undergone significant transformation over the years. Initially, individual ownership was established via royal edicts (Kashos). The enactment of the Thrimzhung Chenmo (Supreme Law Code) in 1953 conferred full ownership rights to individuals and institutions. However, the 2007 Land Act nationalised rangelands, designating them as state property, thereby limiting herders to grazing rights. In 2017, The National Land Commission Secretariat aimed to safeguard the grazing rights of highlanders by redistributing land according to four guiding principles:
This process involved rescinding Tsamdro rights from non-domicile elites and religious institutions, with compensation provided to affected titleholders. This approach sought to balance environmental conservation with the livelihoods of highlanders. In 2017, highland communities petitioned His Majesty the King to reaffirm their Tsamdro rights. Following His Majesty’s endorsement, the National Land Commission of Bhutan developed the Tsamdro Implementation Framework, emphasising community engagement and incorporating local expertise to effectively address the needs of highlanders.
As of now, approximately 380,000 acres of Tsamdros have been surveyed and mapped using the Tsamdro App, co-developed and implemented with the highlanders. Rangelands are now officially recognised in Bhutan’s National Land Use Zoning, and relevant stakeholders are formulating management guidelines.
Key to this process are rangeland restoration efforts, including the control of weeds and invasive species through prescribed burning, water management and reseeding initiatives, all aimed at enhancing grassland productivity for both yaks and wild herbivores. These efforts are designed to ensure sustainable yak production while preserving cultural heritage and the environmental integrity of high-altitude rangelands.
The task of restoration is not an easy one and cannot be managed by a single agency. The National Land Commission Secretariat is encouraged by the combined efforts of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), along with the Department of Forest and Park Services, the Department of Livestock, National Biodiversity Centre, National Plant Protection Centre, and Menjong Sorig Pharmaceuticals Corporation – which specialises in manufacturing medicines using medicinal plants and herbs – in raising awareness about rangeland degradation and trialling various treatments to restore the health and productivity of our Tsamdros.
By conducting these trials with herders, the rangeland restoration work is also building the capacity of herders and incorporating traditional knowledge and practices, all of which align with the land management responsibilities emphasised in the Implementation Framework.
Geley Norbu, Director General, National Land Commission Secretariat (NLCS), Thimphu, Bhutan
Karma Choden Tshering, Senior Land Registrar, NLCS, Bhutan
Chimi Dem, Deputy Chief Survey Engineer, NLCS, Bhutan
Rinzin Dorji, National Cadastral Resurvey Program, NLCS, Bhutan
Last month saw for the first time the Arctic Circle knit together Earth’s three polar regions: the Arctic, the Antarctic and the Himalayas with its new dedicated Polar Dialogue initiative, organized and hosted during its annual Assembly.
Chair of the Dialogue, H.E. Katrín Jakobsdóttir, Prime Minister of Iceland 2017-2024; described “the challenges regarding the cryosphere [as] urgent," and co-chair Antje Boetius, Director, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Germany described the initiative as a “platform [for stakeholders to] keep that level of urgency but build a sphere of trust.”
ICIMOD Director General Pema Gyamtsho joined the Dialogue and sits on the platform’s Advisory Committee of global experts in polar and high-altitude research.
At the session he emphasized common issues shared by polar and mountain zones—from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), erratic weather patterns, to flash floods and thawing permafrost—and called for urgent action and investment in research, mitigation, adaptation; and unprecedented cooperation and collaboration to address escalating risks and build resilience for vulnerable regions.
Boetius said: “Every year we have new data that we need to take into consideration. Humanity as a whole bears a huge commitment with the cryosphere. It's not just the physical property of ice but the loss of cultural diversity."
While the Arctic and Antarctic have long been recognized as critical polar regions, the HKH, which spans eight countries and is home to the world's highest peaks, including Mount Everest, deserves equal recognition due to its vital role as a water tower for nearly 2 billion people and its immense contribution to global climate regulation.
The Polar Dialogue serves as a unique platform to share insights, data, and research on the impacts of climate change in both polar and mountain regions, fostering collaboration across continents.
The Arctic Circle Assembly is the world’s largest annual gathering dedicated to Arctic and global issues held in Reykjavík, Iceland. Drawing over 2000 participants, it convenes heads of state, policymakers, scientists, environmentalists, indigenous leaders, business executives, and civil society members to discuss and address the evolving challenges and opportunities within the Arctic region.
The Arctic Circle Assembly is a nonprofit and nonpartisan organisation, chaired by Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, the former President of Iceland. Its significance lies in its ability to foster dialogue and action on the most pressing issues of our time, particularly in the context of the Arctic's role in the global climate system.
https://www.arcticcircle.org/journal/the-polar-dialogue
https://www.ruv.is/frettir/innlent/2024-09-23-katrin-leidir-umraedur-a-arctic-circle-422970
As the world gathers for the Conference of Parties (COP)16, discussions under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in Cali, Colombia and later in Baku, Azerbaijan for COP29, the global conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the spotlight is firmly on solutions that tackle biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem degradation.
As the COP discussions progress, it’s an opportune moment to highlight how the work we are doing at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) with our partners in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) aligns with the global agenda. Achieving goals on biodiversity, climate, and sustainable development requires ongoing investment, strong partnerships, and large-scale, tangible actions – particularly in the HKH region, where ecosystems support 1.2 billion people across the mountains and downstream river basins.
Our rangelands, wetlands, forests, and ecosystems are vital both for local livelihoods and for global environmental health. They provide essential services like carbon sequestration, water and air regulation, hazard mitigation, habitat protection, and boosting ecosystem productivity. ICIMOD’s work on ecosystems and landscape restoration is dedicated to scaling Nature-based Solutions (NbS) – which include actions to protect, sustainably manage, or restore natural ecosystems that address environmental, social, economic, and gender-related challenges while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. In particular, our work addresses societal challenges around water insecurity and ecosystem degradation – that has deeper implications on food and livelihoods security, including biodiversity conservation. Springshed management and rangelands restoration for multiple benefits are foundational NbS, and together with forest landscape restoration, incentives for biodiversity, and addressing issues on human-wildlife coexistence – we are committing to safeguarding critical mountain ecosystems with the aim of generating multiple benefits – both for people and the environment.
Rangelands and wetlands cover 60% of HKH landmasses. They comprise grasslands, shrublands, meadows, steppes, prairies, marshes, and peatlands which serve as habitats for numerous plant and animal species – especially medicinal plants and key mammal species. These ecosystems provide critical services around water regulation and carbon sequestration, and have deep cultural significance linked to the lives and traditions of pastoralist and herder communities.
Our rangeland intervention adopts the NbS design with the aim of generating climate, biodiversity, and livelihoods co-benefits from rangeland restoration. We promote sustainable grazing practices, working together with herders and pastoralist communities. By collaborating with government agencies, we aim to strengthen policy to enable inclusive and sustainable management of rangeland resources. By working with local governments, herders, and NGOs across several countries, we are co-designing actions to protect rangeland biodiversity, reduce degradation, and increase ecosystem services. Such collaborative research and practice focused on the transformation of rangelands and pastoralism align directly with global commitments to restore degraded landscapes and combat desertification, as emphasised in the 2016 Cancun Statement of the CBD and UNCCD’s the Global Land Outlook Thematic Report on Rangelands.
ICIMOD’s work on wetland conservation and management, particularly in high-altitude wetlands, has implications for global carbon management efforts – supporting both mitigation and adaptation efforts in line with UNFCCC objectives on wise use and restoration of wetlands and peatlands for mitigating climate change.
One of the key NbS that ICIMOD has been championing is springshed management. Springs serve as a lifeline for millions of people across the HKH region, providing essential water resources for drinking, agriculture, and sanitation. ICIMOD’s springshed management emphasises community-led spring mapping, sustainable land-water management practices and restoring vegetation cover around spring catchment areas, ensuring equitable access to reliable and sustainable water sources. Aligned to global efforts under CBD, UNFCCC, and UNCCD conventions, springshed management not only enhances water availability but also strengthens climate resilience in the mountain regions.
Similarly, ICIMOD’s forest landscape restoration (FLR) efforts contribute to the global agenda of restoring degraded ecosystems. By promoting afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, we are helping to restore the ecological integrity of forest landscapes, increase carbon sequestration, and enhance biodiversity. Our work in this area is particularly relevant to the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, which calls for concerted global efforts to restore degraded forests by 2030. We are working with government agencies to provide the science-led evidence around forest gain and carbon emission reduction, including the economics of forest landscape restoration.
The HKH region is home to rich biodiversity, including iconic species such as snow leopards, red pandas, wild yaks, and elephants. When human populations exist together in the same habitat, conflicts often arise. For the HKH, such conflicts are becoming more frequent and severe, threatening wildlife populations and undermining local livelihoods and human wellbeing.
ICIMOD’s work on mitigating human-wildlife conflicts focuses on solutions that foster coexistence between communities and wildlife. By implementing community-based monitoring and awareness, local warning systems, livelihood diversification strategies, and transboundary cooperation, we are helping to reduce the negative impacts of wildlife and local communities existing side by side. Our efforts emphasise the role of traditional knowledge, local stewardship and capacity to combat conflicts. This aligns well with Target 4 of the Global Biodiversity Framework to promote human-wildlife co-existence.
Incentives play a critical role in motivating conservation actions and sustaining biodiversity. ICIMOD’s work on developing innovative incentive measures for biodiversity and sustainable landscapes is designed to bridge the gap between conservation and development, providing direct contribution to Target 11 of the CBD, and to the Article 6.4 mechanism of the Paris Agreement under UNFCCC. We are engaging with private sectors and banking and financial institutions to innovate blended financing as a collective effort to reinforce sustainable development.
Our work on greener incentives highlights the importance of aligning incentive measures with government policies and private-sector initiatives. By fostering partnerships with governments, NGOs, and private-sector actors, we are ensuring that environmentally positive actions, climate adaptation actions and NbS efforts are financially sustainable and scalable. These incentives are particularly important in the context of the HKH region, where environmental economics have huge potential.
ICIMOD’s venture on Natural Capital Accounting (NCA) with the Royal Government of Bhutan is bringing to light the value of natural capital stocks and flows, and their contributions to the economy. By quantifying the economic benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services, NCA is guiding policymakers and stakeholders to make informed decisions about conservation investments. Our work in Bhutan, for example, has demonstrated how NCA can be used to support the management of Protected Areas (PAs) – ensuring that their contributions to national development goals are adequately accounted. We are supporting the Department of Forests and Park Services in Bhutan to develop guidelines for NCA for PAs in alignment with the global SEEA-EA framework.
Additionally, ICIMOD is working to identify and promote Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs) in the HKH region. OECMs are areas that deliver biodiversity conservation outcomes without being formally designated as PAs. These areas are often managed by Indigenous people and local communities – which gives us ample opportunities to work with them and acknowledge their contributions. By recognising and supporting these areas, we are contributing to the CBD’s global target of conserving biodiversity across different types of landscapes – especially towards achieving CBD’s Target 3, which emphasises the need to conserve at least 30% of the planet’s land and oceans by 2030.
As the challenges of biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem degradation continue to mount globally and in the HKH, the work done by ICIMOD and its partners in the HKH region offers a model for integrated, landscape-level NbS that are relevant across other mountain regions across the globe.
Sustaining these efforts at scale will require continued collaboration, dedicated investments, capacity, and political will. It is crucial that governments, local communities, and the private sector work together to scale up successful initiatives and ensure that the HKH region’s ecosystems remain resilient in the face of growing environmental and climate challenges. We call for stronger regional cooperation among ICIMOD’s eight member countries. Our collective voice and united efforts for the HKH region will make a decisive contribution to global biodiversity, climate, and sustainable development goals.
Moving forward, we need to prioritise science and research actions, especially long-term monitoring of ecosystem health, enhancing the use of technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS), including data analytics based on artificial intelligence (AI) to inform conservation and management decisions. Innovating incentive mechanisms to scale NbS – especially policy and regulatory incentives – are designed to encourage investments from private sectors. A regional landscape restoration programme targeted to degraded ecosystems of HKH, facilitated through regional cooperation, regional data and information systems, and blended financing can further enhance our commitments to global biodiversity, climate, and sustainable goals.
The Hailuogou Glacier is located in Luding County of China’s Sichuan Province. The Hailuogou Glacier Forest Park, the only glacier-forest park in China, is one of the most important tourist attractions in the country, rated as a 5A-level tourist destination with excellent access, accommodations, attractions, activities and amenities (AAAAA). The glacier covers almost 25 square kilometres from 2900 up to 7556 metres above sea level. It is one of the few glaciers at low altitude that are relatively easily accessible. The debris-covered glacier serves as a training site for field-based glacier monitoring, largely due to the relatively ease of access.
In April 2024, I was fortunate to join the COP29 Youth Glacier and Climate Change Scientific Exploration Campaign at Hailuogou, where I spent four days alongside fellow early-career researchers from across China. We were guided by some of the country’s leading cryosphere experts, who shared insights into glacier monitoring, the effects of climate change, and the use of advanced technologies in glacier research, such as drone survey, Automatic Weather Station (AWS), and ice core drilling. This expedition provided great opportunities for me not only to learn but also to share information about cryosphere monitoring in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, carried out by ICIMOD and its partners. As we exchanged knowledge, we not only broadened our scientific understanding of cryosphere dynamics but also fostered cross-cultural connections within the research community and identified areas for potential research collaborations.
As a glaciologist, fieldwork is a fundamental part of my research, and I have undertaken numerous expeditions, each presenting its own challenges. I was pleasantly surprised that Hailuogou Glacier was easily accessible, unlike my experiences in Nepal, where at least one week is required to reach most glaciers. We reached Hailuogou after just a one-hour drive from Moxi old town, making this an unusually convenient field experience.
One of our key partners in China, the Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment (IMHE) at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is actively monitoring Hailuogou Glacier. Professor Liu Qiao from IMHE shared insights into ongoing activities on the glacier and highlighted its rapidly changing features, which illustrate the effects of climate change. One major transformation has occurred in the glacier’s icefall, which was previously connected to the glacier tongue. However, the tongue is now completely detached from the rest of the glacier due to thinning, leaving behind a steep cliff and exposed bedrock.
A cable car ride over the glacier offered us a unique view, further highlighting the dramatic changes to the icefall. In the past, trekkers could descend from a lateral moraine to the glacier, but the extent of glacier down-wasting has rendered the trail inaccessible. Once a popular attraction for its breathtaking beauty, the icefall is now steadily diminishing.
A visit to the Alpine Ecosystem Observation and Experiment Station of Mt. Gongga, a national station of IMHE led by Director Chang Ruiying, helped us gain a deeper understanding of the efforts made by our partners to monitor the changing patterns of the glacier and the technologies used for studying it. The station plays a crucial role in observing and conducting research within the alpine ecosystem, offering valuable insights into the impacts of climate change on glaciers such as Hailuogou.
Under the guidance of Professor Tian Lide from the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research at the CAS, we learned about the process of extracting ice cores - one of the methods used to study past climates. Professor Tian Lide demonstrated how shallow ice cores are extracted at a chosen glacier site where the ice surface is exposed and suitable for drilling. The ice cores’ layers, accumulated over centuries, provide valuable clues about past climate conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric composition. The ice traps air bubbles and particles such as dust, ash, and pollutants that reveal environmental pollution levels from the past. Studying these properties can improve our understanding of glacier health and enables researchers to both examine past biological activities involving microorganisms and pollen and to model future changes.
We, an animated group of young researchers, felt invigorated by the three days spent learning about the magnificent Hailuogou Glacier, its vulnerability to climate change, and the growing public concern over its future.
The experience of participating in this expedition has empowered me to inspire young researchers to delve into the study of the cryosphere, emphasising the critical need for ongoing glacier monitoring across the HKH region. This effort is vital for understanding the changes happening, the hazards involved, and the impacts on ecosystems and communities. To safeguard these essential resources, we must invest in training the next generation of researchers. With only a small fraction of glaciers studied, it is imperative that we expand our research efforts to deepen our understanding of their dynamics and the environmental changes they bring.
The expedition to Hailuogou Glacier not only expanded my understanding of cryosphere issues but also underscored the dedication, resilience, and passion required to work in glacial environments. I left with a profound sense of responsibility and a strong desire to contribute to the protection of glaciers and to ensuring that we respond effectively to the challenges posed by the changing climate.
Rangelands, which are found in diverse ecosystems, support both livelihoods and rich biodiversity, and are principally used for grazing by domestic or wild animals. In Bhutan, these include both forest and open ecosystems, from the subtropical grasslands in the southern foothills to temperate rangelands at middle elevations and high-elevation alpine meadows (Wangda, 2011), where they are grazed mostly by yak and cattle. However, they are coming under increasing threat due to the rapid spread of weeds and invasive species, which is also a pervasive issue globally.
The proliferation of weeds and invasive species is recognised as one of the main drivers of rangeland degradation in Bhutan, which is further exacerbated by climate change, and changes in management practices and government policies (Millar & Tenzing, 2021). These bring about huge changes in structure and ecological functioning that have far-reaching consequences, including displacement of native species, changes in cultural practices, and socio-economic losses. Changes include an increase in aboveground net primary productivity, which promotes competition for light and changes in the dynamics of interactions with grazers and pastoralists. Furthermore, it impacts the water and nutrient cycles within an ecosystem, as well as infiltration capacities and fire dynamics. Fire is particularly important to rangelands, where it is a fundamental ecological process of many ecosystems.
Given the ecological diversity within Bhutan, there are varying drivers that affect changes in these systems. For example, the alpine and temperate rangelands across Bhutan are undergoing serious changes brought about by the encroachment of shrubs such as Rhododendron and Juniper. Among the few studies carried out in Bhutan, Dorji et al (2024) showed that an increase in the species and dominance of shrub species in the summer rangelands of Dagala in western Bhutan reduced plant species richness by 50–90%. Overgrazing in Bhutanese rangelands is an ongoing issue (Chophyel, 2009) that causes the proliferation of weeds and other unpalatable species such as Potentilla peduncularis Rumex, Senecio spp.
In subtropical to temperate regions, the spread of invasive alien species is a major threat to biodiversity (NBSAP, 2014). Globally, invasive alien species are considered among the two greatest threats to biodiversity (Dueñas et al., 2018), and their impacts are likely to be even higher in developing countries like Bhutan. Some of the most problematic species there include Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratina adenophora, and Mikania micrantha. These species are believed to have been introduced to Bhutan accidentally as seed contaminants, or deliberately as fodder or ornamental plants, and their movement has been facilitated by trade across Bhutan’s porous border with India (Yangzom et al 2020). Some of these species display aggressive growth and allelopathic effects – whereby a plant releases toxins to suppress the growth of other plants – enabling them to out-compete native species and form dominant stands.
The relationship between the drivers and impacts of encroachment is complex and depends on context (Maestre et al., 2020). For example, the effects will depend on the species and their functional traits, management history, and ecological conditions. This complexity and the importance of rangelands underscores the urgent need for further studies from Bhutan to aid our understanding of their impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the otherwise understudied Himalayan rangeland system and is crucial for the development of appropriate management strategies.
Mr. Tshering Dorji, PhD Student
University of Edinburgh (School of GeoSciences) & Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
Tshering.Dorji@ed.ac.uk or tdorji@rbge.org.uk
Dr. Colin Pendry
Editor (Flora of Nepal), Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
cpendry@rbge.org.uk
Chophyel, P. (2009). Rangeland management in Bhutan: A consultancy report. Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture.
Dorji, T. (2023). Graminoid richness and composition patterns along a shrub cover gradient in Dagala, Bhutan. MSc. Thesis, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
Dueñas, M. A., Ruffhead, H. J., Wakefield, N. H., Roberts, P. D., Hemming, D. J., & Diaz-Soltero, H. (2018). The role played by invasive species in interactions with endangered and threatened species in the United States: a systematic review. Biodiversity and Conservation, 27, 3171-3183.
Maestre, F. T., Eldridge, D. J., & Soliveres, S. (2016). A multifaceted view on the impacts of shrub encroachment. Applied Vegetation Science, 19(3), 369-370.
Millar, J., & Tenzing, K. (2021). Transforming degraded rangelands and pastoralists' livelihoods in Eastern Bhutan. Mountain Research and Development, 41(4), D1-D7.
National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan. (2014). National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan. Thimphu, Bhutan. National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.
Wangda, P. (2017). Rangeland Areas of Bhutan. National Research Centre for Animal Nutrition Bumthang
Yangzom, R. et al. (2018). A Pictorial Guide to Major Invasive Plant Species of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan.
It is with profound respect and a deep sense of loss that we commemorate the life and legacy of Professor Jack D. Ives, who passed away on 15 September 2024. A pioneering geographer, geomorphologist and visionary scholar, Professor Ives dedicated his career to bringing global attention to the challenges faced by mountain regions, particularly the Himalayas: and it is hard to overstate the role he played in shaping the discourse on mountain development, and in the birth of ICIMOD itself.
Professor Ives's name is synonymous with mountain research, and he was instrumental in shifting the global discourse around mountains from one of mere exploration to one of sustainability, resilience, and conservation. One of his most influential works, The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation (1989), co-authored with Bruno Messerli, remains a seminal text in the field of mountain studies. This book addressed alarmist reports that claimed the Himalayan region was on the verge of ecological collapse due to deforestation, erosion, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Ives and Messerli challenged this reductive, predominant narrative, with evidence of the more complex socio-economic, political, and environmental forces at play in the Himalayas.
Professor Ives accumulated many accolades in his illustrious career, including recognition from the UNEP Global 500 Award for his environmental achievements and the King Albert I Memorial Medal for his contributions to the development of mountain regions. His work with UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) further solidified his reputation as a global leader in mountain research and conservation.
Ives’s work through the MAB Programme and his chairing of its International Working Group not only contributed to the founding of ICIMOD but also advanced global understanding of the importance of integrating ecological, economic, and social considerations in mountain development. Ives envisioned an institution that would serve as a regional hub for research, knowledge sharing, and policy development focused specifically on mountain environments. He believed that such an institution would foster collaboration between the countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, helping them address shared challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable livelihoods.
As we reflect on his life, we remember Ives, not only for his intellectual contributions, but also for his warmth and generosity, and his commitment to the advancement of the careers of young researchers. His ability to inspire and engage with people from all walks of life, from local communities in mountain regions to policymakers and fellow academics, was truly exceptional. His tireless efforts laid the foundation for a more sustainable and equitable future for the Hindu Kush Himalaya and beyond.
At ICIMOD, we owe much of our foundation to Professor Ives' vision and leadership. His belief in the power of collaboration and knowledge sharing across borders remains at the heart of our work today. His passing is a tremendous loss to the global mountain community, but his legacy endures in the ongoing work of ICIMOD and among his wide network of colleagues and friends. We will always remember him as a pioneer, mentor, and friend.
Grazing of plants by domesticated livestock is an important ecosystem service of either private or public grazing lands. However, not all plants growing in these areas are palatable or desirable. Several plant species can: be undesirable to livestock, be poisonous, outcompete desirable plants, or cause other issues such as blocking of livestock access to desirable plants. In this respect, it is important to understand the difference between native plants, invasive plants, and weeds.
Native or indigenous plants are those that have been growing in a particular habitat for thousands of years, oftentimes even before the arrival of humans to that area. These species co-evolve with their beneficial organisms and predators and are well adapted to the local environmental, climatic, and soil conditions.
Invasive or non-native plants or alien plants are those that are not native to the area. They are often introduced purposely or accidentally by humans or birds or grazing animals from another area. These plants usually proliferate and outcompete the native plants and cause environmental or economic harm. Often, these are not palatable or desirable to grazing animals and hence are detrimental to grazing lands. These plants usually disrupt ecosystem services of the grazing area and are, therefore, categorised as invasive weeds.
A weed is a plant that grows in a place where it is not wanted and competes with plants desired by humans, or in the case of pastures, grazing areas, and rangelands, by livestock. Thus, the term ‘weed’ is a plant that is perceived to be undesirable in the system of immediate interest to humans, e.g. agriculture farm, home gardens, grazing areas etc. Weeds can be plants of native or alien origin. Based on this definition, a native plant can also become a weed if it proliferates and competes with desirable plants of human interest. There have been cases where a native plant has aggressively taken over a landscape and outcompeted other desirable plant species. Such examples can be observed in grazing pastures and rangelands, and we present one such example from Bhutan.
Usually, it is preferred that pastures and grazing lands have a dominance of plant species palatable to the livestock and a balanced presence of some desirable plant species that may not be palatable but provide ecosystem services such as prevention of soil erosion, shade to the livestock, or other soil and environmental balances. In an ideal world, a perfect balance in these plant species is desired. However, oftentimes, undesired plants of native or alien origin can make incursions into the grazing areas, outcompete the desirable species, cause imbalances in the plant communities, and disrupt ecosystem services of the area. These problems often go unnoticed and within a short time it becomes ‘too late’ to implement economically viable management options.
Two problematic natives
In this section, we present an experience of how two native plants have caused imbalances in the plant communities in grazing lands (approximately 3300 m amsl) of Bhutan and caused disruptions in ecosystem services and the seasonal migration and use of these pastures by transhumant yak herders. The two native plants are Rumex nepalensis (Photo 1) and Anisodus luridus (Photo 2).
Although these are native plants, they have made incursions in the grazing areas, outcompeted the desirable and palatable native plants, almost become the sole dominant species (Photo 3, 4), and disrupted the ecosystem services of the grazing areas. Although most plant species have some desirable properties in them, unfortunately, until we find reliable information on such, they become weeds in these grazing areas. As a result, these grazing areas are losing their utility and becoming huge patches with limited ecosystem services to human interest and to the wild ungulates that also use these areas. The damages to the interests of yak herders were numerous, ranging from economic to social interests.
The economic and ecosystem costs of these imbalances in plant species seem to be huge and the task at hand of restoring these grazing lands seems to be overwhelming. However, a start must be made in tackling this problem as it has begun to affect the livelihood of the yak herders. Since these are grazing lands, a simple weed management system designed for agricultural weeds does not look to be a solution as we are dealing with natural areas that provide ecosystem services and thus the solution also must be a natural management intervention with least disturbance to the ecosystem.
In conclusion, there is a great need to study the problem in greater depth and develop solutions before more grazing areas face this situation and lead to losses in biodiversity and the pastoral cultures dependent on their seasonal use. Granted that these are native plants but when such plants cause imbalances in ecosystems, management intervention is warranted before the problem goes out of control. Such interventions could be reseeding of native species, prescribed burning etc., but studies are needed before such strategies can be implemented.