Halting deforestation and forest degradation is one of the key options for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions, but delivering results on the ground remains a challenge. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD, where ‘+’ refers to enhancing forest carbon stocks) originally emerged under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations to incentivise low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) for conserving forests to sequester carbon. As the voluntary carbon market gained momentum, REDD+ projects began issuing forest carbon credits – tradable units sold to businesses and individuals aiming to offset their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. While these credits now dominate the market, experience suggests that translating forest conservation into a reliable climate change mitigation option is far from straightforward.

The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE) and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) organise the Karl-Göran Mäler (KGM) Memorial Lecture biannually in memory of Professor Karl-Göran Mäler, who was one of the founders of SANDEE along with Sir Partha Dasgupta of Cambridge University.

Professor Erin Sills of North Carolina State University delivered the KGM Memorial Lecture this summer, in July 2025, as part of SANDEE’s 49th Research and Training Workshop in Sri Lanka. The Memorial Lecture was focused on the assessment of one of the world’s most ambitious performance-based climate mitigation initiatives, ‘Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+).’

The lecture intended to share learnings from empirical research assessing how well REDD+ has worked as a performance-based climate change mitigation tool. It revisited REDD+’s original promise, paying to reduce deforestation and forest degradation, and examined whether projects delivered measurable impacts.

Drawing on studies of REDD+ initiatives in the Brazilian Amazon and household-level information from sites across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the lecture highlighted both methodological challenges and practical realities. It explored difficulties in constructing credible baselines (comparison or reference group) and presented synthetic control methods as a plausible way out.

The REDD+ framework’s concept is elegantly simple, as forests naturally store carbon, and protecting them should help fight climate change while preserving biodiversity and supporting local communities. Yet, it is operationally complex, as the REDD+ programme provides financial incentives to LMICs to reduce deforestation and forest degradation while enhancing forest carbon stocks.

Over time, REDD+ projects became increasingly linked to the voluntary carbon market, where individuals and companies are trading in carbon credits to offset their private emissions. Professor Sills’ lecture discussed whether these forest projects were creating impacts (additionality). Using satellite data and advanced research methods, she studied forest projects in Brazil and selected other countries, with a group of collaborators, to examine whether protected areas experienced reduced deforestation than what they would have without the REDD+ projects.

Results from Prof. Sills and co-authors’ work show that, in Brazil, only one among 12 forest projects showed a statistically significant effect on reducing deforestation. Globally, just seven out of 18 projects showed real (statistically significant and economically meaningful) impacts. Projects claimed they would offset 90 million tonnes of carbon dioxide but delivered only six million tonnes, a 90% failure rate.

The few successful projects, though, had some aspects in common; for example, projects led by government agencies and Indigenous communities were more likely to demonstrate increased conservation results. In another study, a survey of 2,000 households across 17 REDD+ project sites in countries such as Peru, Brazil, Cameroon, Tanzania, Vietnam, and Indonesia reveals a more nuanced picture of impact. As many as 30% of these project participants reported having never heard of the project or feeling that it had no relevance to their lives. Another 30% acknowledged awareness of such projects but said those had not influenced their land use practices, while around 40% said the projects had indeed led them to change their land use practices. These findings suggest that while REDD+ is having a positive effect in many countries, its reach and impact are more limited than were initially anticipated.

In wrapping up, the lecture called for moving beyond offset-based models toward approaches that provide steady, outcome-driven investment in forest conservation—linking finance to verified results over time rather than one-off projections. The takeaway was clear: cutting emissions at the source remains one of the more effective ways to slow down the effects of global climate change. Forest conservation is still vital, not only for storing carbon but also for safeguarding biodiversity and supporting ecosystem services that people depend on. To play this role effectively, it needs financing systems grounded in accountability, realism, and lessons learned from the ground. REDD+ can still be part of the solution, but only if future efforts are designed to deliver tangible, lasting results rather than promises.

Please click the video link to watch the full lecture

Nepal’s richness in its high-value resources, including those in energy, agriculture, minerals and metals, medicinal herbs, forest resources, and tourism, has the potential for the setting up of new businesses. However, restrictive policies, inadequate regulatory frameworks, and limited market access have hindered this progress.

A fitting entrepreneurial ecosystem in the country is required to helm and provide all necessary skillsets, technology transfer and policy guidance required for this to take shape. The World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Report 2020 ranked the country 94th out of 190 economies based on factors such as access to credit information, cross-border trade, and other key business indicators. Nepal, a lower-middle-income country with a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $1,336.55 and 30.5 million people, shows mixed performance in its business environment. It excels in operational efficiency but falls short in regulatory framework, public services, and especially market competition. While it performs well in financial services and labour, it lags behind regional peers like Pakistan in areas such as business entry. Overall, Nepal has some strengths in business operations but needs significant improvements to create a more supportive environment for entrepreneurship and growth. But these factors get more complicated if conditions like climate change, environmental degradation, and socio-economic deprivation are factored in.

The act of doing business across the country is not the same. While certain regions reap benefits from better-developed sectors like tourism, other regions, like the Madhesh province, are prone to external shocks such as natural disasters, economic downturns, and political instability. Additionally, essential building blocks like technology transfer, education, and supporting infrastructure are often missing.

Fostering a startup-friendly Nepal

Given these conditions, how can the country encourage more founders to take the entrepreneurial leap?

To answer this question, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has been collaborating with the government of Nepal to identify and utilise national and provincial level opportunities to create more demand for startup thinking. ICIMOD has established a national consortium to foster and strengthen the entrepreneurial ecosystem of Nepal which includes participation from the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Supplies, private sector like the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI), and academia following the triple-helix model (a framework that describes the dynamic and synergistic interactions between universities (academia), industry, and government to foster innovation and entrepreneurship in a knowledge-based economy, where these three institutional spheres collaborate through overlapping roles, knowledge transfer, and resource sharing to drive economic and social development). This model has led to increased awareness of the government’s willingness to foster and strengthen the entrepreneurial landscape of Nepal.

Firstly, ICIMOD has been working to bridge the gap between public and private sector actors. An example of this effort is the partnership between the Birgunj Chamber of Commerce and Industries and the Industrial Enterprise Development Institution (IEDI). This collaboration seeks to leverage private sector expertise while strengthening public-private dialogue, ultimately supporting local business development and improving service delivery.

Secondly, we have also been focusing on strengthening institutional capacities at the national level. We aim to support authorities with relevant skillsets, which would lead to knowledge transfer and scaling of efforts at the provincial level. With this vision, we initiated the Startup Nation concept – a key platform to showcase the government and private sectors’ efforts in building a startup ecosystem. While ICIMOD has been supporting the government since 2023 with the Startup Nation 2030 initiative, one breakthrough was the Government of Nepal (GoN)’s commitment to establishing incubation centres (IC) in all seven provinces, signalling a strategic move toward nurturing a robust startup ecosystem. Although initial steps such as feasibility studies have been completed, the actual establishment of the ICs has yet to commence, indicating a need for accelerated implementation to realise the envisioned startup culture.

Thirdly, ICIMOD has also focused on creating relevant support systems to aid the government with its National Startup Policy 2024, a framework designed to promote entrepreneurship, support innovation, and facilitate the growth of startups in the country outlines several incentives to support startups, including tax exemptions, concessional loans, and the enhancement of accelerator programs through the establishment of ICs. The policy also aims to establish associations such as the Nepal Startup Council and the National Startup Board to provide focused support and governance for the startup ecosystem across the nation.

ICIMOD has also been working with the IEDI, a mandated agency for startup promotion and incubation centre development, since 2023, in developing startup-related policies and procedures. The institute also prioritises support to provinces like Madhesh, including the allocation of a budget for establishing an incubation centre. In collaboration with private sectors and development agencies, including ICIMOD, the government has launched initiatives to create ICs in all seven provinces (Koshi, Madhesh, Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali, and Sudurpachchim) of Nepal, particularly focusing on the Madhesh Province. This ambitious plan is part of a broader mission to transform Nepal into a hub for startups, to create 10,000 startups and 100,000 new quality jobs by 2030.

Thus, ICIMOD’s Building capabilities for green, climate resilient and inclusive development in the Lower Koshi River Basin (HI-GRID) project, supported by the Australian government, with its partner, has been working in the Madhesh Province to establish an incubation centre.

The rise of Madhesh as an entrepreneur hub

The Madhesh Province is historically known for its cultural richness and economic significance. It is experiencing a shift towards entrepreneurship as a driver for local development. The region has a longstanding tradition in trade and agriculture, and with growing interest in innovation and technology-based enterprises, the startup ecosystem in Madhesh Province is now beginning to emerge.

While the development of IC and the entrepreneurial landscape in Madhesh Province is still in its nascent stages, there are promising signs of progress. A significant boost to the region’s entrepreneurial landscape comes from ICIMOD’s involvement with a local-level consortium, including the government, in establishing an IC focused on green, resilient, and inclusive startups. Birgunj, an important trade city with a key role in cross-border exchange with India, has taken the lead and committed to allocating land for the establishment of IC. Other cities in the province have yet to make similar commitments. This initiative in Birgunj is expected to foster startups and transform Madhesh into an entrepreneurship and innovation hub, addressing unemployment across all community segments.

The initiative supports the development of a startup ecosystem aligned with the fourth industrial revolution principles. This also includes setting up centres known as Rojgar Kendra or employment centres, which are organisations or government offices that provide job placement services, vocational training, and other resources to help people find employment.

Opportunities like the national Startup Nation 2030 conference have also influenced laying out a roadmap for advancing entrepreneurship within the province. Seeing the success of the national conference, a provincial-level event was held in Birgunj. Over 100 Nepali organisations participated in the event with an aim to transform Madhesh Province’s entrepreneurial landscape.

The entrepreneurial spirit in Madhesh is pervasive, driven by a young and dynamic population eager to harness new opportunities. The provincial and municipal governments in Madhesh are yet to implement dedicated activities like the establishment of IC and innovation labs (physical hubs for co-creating and nurturing entrepreneurial ideas), highlighting that, although plans exist, their implementation is still at a nascent stage. This presents both a challenge and an opportunity for focused development in the region.

What is next for the Madhesh Province?

The future of Madhesh’s entrepreneurial ecosystem hinges on the synergetic integration of three key components: the incubation centre (backed by the government, development partners like ICIMOD, FNCCI, and local leadership), innovation hubs, and Rojgar Kendras.

IC serves as the cornerstone, providing mentorship and resources. Innovation labs will act as creative spaces for idea generation, experimentation, and prototyping of new solutions, particularly addressing local development and market challenges. Rojgar Kendras will ensure a steady flow of skilled talent by bridging the gap between job seekers and startups. This integrated approach can position Madhesh to transform into a vibrant entrepreneurial hub, fostering innovation, creating employment opportunities, and driving sustainable economic growth. Success will depend on continued leadership commitment, effective implementation of supportive policies, and sustained collaboration between the government, private sectors, academia, and international organisations.

“Sometimes I wonder, are we born only to drown?”
Anju Jha, President, Mandwi, a non-governmental organisation from Nepal

This haunting quote is a lived reality for communities in the flood-prone plains of the Madhesh province in southern Nepal. Every monsoon, as the bright sky under the Terai’s scorching sun is darkened by the monsoon clouds, the people of Madhesh prepare not with relief, but with fear. The Lal Bakaiya River, flowing through Madhesh’s Rautahat and Bara districts, is prone to flooding, where floodwaters are an unwelcome annual visitor for communities.

Floods in the Lal Bakaiya River are a recurring crisis, triggered by a combination of extreme monsoon rainfall, fragile upstream terrain, and unplanned development. Nepal receives up to 80% of its annual rainfall during the monsoon, particularly in the Chure hills, where steep slopes and weak geology cause massive erosion and sediment flow. These sediments settle in the Terai plains, raising riverbeds and reducing the river’s capacity to carry water, which increases the risk of overbank flooding.

At the same time, anthropogenic activities such as settlements along riverbanks, encroachment, and poorly designed infrastructure like embankments have disrupted natural drainage systems. As a result, floodwaters now linger for longer periods, turning what were once short-lived floods into prolonged disasters.

A Province at the receiving end

The Lal Bakaiya watershed in Madhesh province faces a dual water crisis: it receives too much water during the monsoon (June–August) and not enough water during the dry period (March–May). “In the summer, we run out of water for drinking, irrigation, and daily use. But during monsoon, we have enough to drown in.” says Anju Jha.  This paradox illustrates the intensity of climate extremes faced by the communities here.

Several districts in the Madhesh province lie just below the Chure hills, a fragile ecological belt that covers 13% of Nepal’s total area and is rapidly degrading. Torrential rain in the upper catchments, combined with soil erosion and siltation, results in flash floods downstream.

For downstream communities, like in Rautahat, even when rainfall is not excessively local, erratic upstream rainfall leads to flooding. Over the years, this has led to a significant rise in riverbed levels, further increasing the risk of inundation. Anthropogenic activities also contribute to turning this hazard into a disaster.

“There have been many changes in the floods we receive throughout the years. There were no dams in the past. In the past, we used to get flooded, and that would last for one or two days. But now, we still get flooded, but there is no way for the water to escape. We are left inundated for weeks.”  says Banthi Pashwan, a local community member.  

This year, the Monsoon Outlook published by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has forecasted above-average rainfall across the country.  While not specific to Lal Bakaiya, the implications are clear: degraded watersheds, changing land use, and weak infrastructure will amplify flood risks unless addressed urgently.

Early warnings and local leadership

To address this growing threat, ICIMOD is piloting community-based approaches, especially the Community-Based Early Flood Warnings System (CBFEWS). The CBFEWS is an early warning tool that detects floods and helps spread alerts quickly within the community so people can take timely action.

This pre-monsoon season, to enhance community response capabilities and build resilience, ICIMOD, under the “Building capabilities for green, climate-resilient and inclusive development” (HI-GRID) project, supported by the Government of Australia, partnered with Mandwi, a non-profit organisation located in Rautahat, Nepal, to conduct flood preparedness training in the flood-prone Lal Bakaiya watershed. The session aimed to strengthen the resilience of vulnerable communities through practical knowledge and early action.

What made this year special was our partnership with the Disaster Education Promotion Office (DEPO), Nepal, to gamify the training modules. By using gamification, the training encouraged active participation from everyone, young and old, men and women alike. Participants learned how to respond to rising floodwaters, coordinate emergency alerts, and evacuate safely. For many, it was their first time taking part in such an interactive simulation. This new approach turned essential knowledge into practical, life-saving action in an engaging and memorable way.

The gamification concept helped simplify disaster concepts, especially for low-literacy communities, making the training more effective and memorable. The sessions included real-life demonstrations, first aid, and rescue techniques, which strengthened local capacities to respond to flood emergencies ahead of the monsoon. While efforts were made to ensure inclusivity, female participation was low, especially in Rajdevi municipality. Appointing female trainers or organising women-only sessions could help in increasing participation.

What the government is doing

The Government of Nepal also continues to prioritise flood risk reduction as part of its national disaster preparedness strategy. According to Deepak Marahatta, President of DEPO, policies are made through committees such as the ward disaster management committees (WDMC) regarding early warning and disaster preparedness. However, on-ground challenges remain, particularly the need for long-term watershed protection and upstream land-use management, especially in the Chure region.

What still needs to be done

The flood risk in Madhesh cannot be solved through early warnings alone. While important early warnings deal with the symptoms, not the causes. What is needed is an integrated watershed management plan with an integrated flood risk management approach that considers the upstream-downstream linkages, integrates land, water, and ecosystem management, and balances conservation with development.

ICIMOD is working with local governments in the Lal Bakaiya watershed to develop such a plan to tackle the region’s ‘Too Much Too Little (TMTL)’ water challenge – a condition of alternating floods and water scarcity for the region. The approach will combine scientific assessment, community knowledge, and cross-sectoral collaboration to identify root causes of watershed degradation and implement sustainable solutions. The watershed management plan will help decision-makers at the ward, municipal, and river basin levels to understand the watershed’s current status, identify key challenges, risks, and opportunities, and leverage investments for the watershed management plan in the short- and long-term. In the long run, these measures would reduce upstream degradation by providing a mix of locally relevant solutions, with institutional backing.

A call for collective action

Communities in Madhesh are not passive victims. They are learning, adapting, and leading. Non-governmental organisations like Mandwi are advocating for water equity, climate justice, and locally rooted solutions. ICIMOD supports this work through science-based interventions, nature-based solutions, and regional cooperation.

But to break the flood cycle and ensure future generations are not ‘born to drown,’ we need a collective, cross-sectoral response. “Early warning systems are effective, but to truly reduce the impact of flood risk in downstream communities, we must enhance flood management efforts in the upstream Chure hills, the source of these rivers”, says Sanjay, Red Cross, Gaur, Nepal. Additionally, it is equally important to scale up the early warning system and mainstream it into national disaster strategies.

Transparency is more than just a buzzword in the fight against climate change around the world. It is what builds trust, credibility, and ambition. Climate pledges and promises are meaningless if there is no follow-through. With a transparency framework, countries can keep track of their progress, improve their policies, and work together more effectively. That is why the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF), one of the central pillars of the Paris Agreement, is very important, especially for more vulnerable areas, like the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH). 

But what is the ETF? And how could the HKH countries benefit from it?  

Article 13 of the Paris Agreement established the ETF and builds on earlier efforts to make things more transparent and clearer, like the measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) arrangements under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where countries systematically track, report, and having their climate actions assessed to ensure progress towards their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).  

The ETF is ‘enhanced’ because it has a single set of rules and expectations for all countries, no matter how developed they are. It also has built-in flexibility for countries that need it in light of their capacities, with special consideration to least developed countries (LDCs) and small island developing states (SIDS). 

Starting from December 2024, countries are required to submit their progress report on climate action and support [formally referred to as Biennial Transparency Reports (BTRs)] as part of the ETF. These reports contain: 

• National greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories showing emissions from different sources and removals by sinks 
• Information about how each country is faring with the implementation of its NDCs, which are the country’s climate promises under the Paris Agreement 
• Information on how countries are susceptible to impacts of climate change and adaptation actions being implemented or planned to be implemented to protect vulnerable communities and ecosystems, and make them more resilient
• Information on support mobilised and provided by developed countries and support needed and received by developing countries, especially in the areas of climate finance, capacity-building, and technology development and transfer 

These reports are reviewed by technical experts. They also go through a multilateral process where countries can talk about each other's progress in a constructive way. This approach ensures that climate action is not only happening, but that it is also being shared and understood in a way that everyone can see, learn, and compare. 

In short, the ETF asks each country:

• What is the historical and future trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions from different streams of the country's economy? 
• Where do cost-effective opportunities exist to reduce emissions in a manner to contributes to sustainable development and the collective goal of 1.5 degrees?
• What and where opportunities exist to climate-proof social, environmental, and economic activities?  
• What policies and measures need to be put in place to harvest those opportunities, and how do these policies and measures impact the future emissions and increase resiliency? 
• What are the success stories, and how can one learn from the other? 

Why is the ETF vital for the HKH Region? 

The HKH is warming at twice the global average. It is home to more than 240 million people and is a vital source of water, biodiversity, and climate regulation, and provides vital ecosystem services to nearly 2 billion people downstream. Glaciers are melting, monsoon patterns are changing, and communities are having more floods, droughts, and landslides. But a lot of countries in the HKH region have trouble keeping track of and reporting on climate action because they do not have enough technical skills, their institutions are too spread out, and they do not have all the data they need. 

Hence, ETF is not only vital but also necessary for the HKH: 

• It helps in data/evidence-based decision-making 
  The ETF helps countries set up ways to gather and study climate data, such as tracking emissions and figuring out how to adapt. This is important for making good policies and responses in mountain areas like the HKH, where data is often hard to find or scattered. 
• It enhances access to climate finance 
  For developing countries, the ETF entails making an assessment of the inflow of climate finance and additional needs in a comprehensive manner.  Such assessment, along with clear and transparent information on underlying policies and measures needed to achieve the NDCs, can serve as a credible basis for mobilising international support. 
• It helps you see how well you can adapt and bounce back 
  Most countries of the HKH put adaptation first, but they do not have clear ways to measure and report on progress. The ETF gives a way to keep track of how countries are dealing with climate change and what works and what does not. 
• It encourages cooperation 
  The ETF gives HKH countries a common reporting language that makes it easier for them to work together, share what they have learnt, and speak out together. This is especially important in a region that is facing serious impacts of climate change. 
• It elevates mountain voices globally 
  Transparent reporting helps HKH countries tell their climate stories better to the international audience, including at global settings like the Conference of the Parties (COP) and the Global Stocktake. This makes sure that mountain issues are seen, heard, and dealt with. 

Not just a technical burden – a strategic opportunity 

The ETF is more than just turning in information and reports, and meeting deadlines. It is about putting together the systems, skills, and partnerships that make climate action work. It's a chance for countries to look at where they are, identify gaps, mobilise resources, and build momentum for climate responses that are ambitious, smarter, and more inclusive. 

Given extreme vulnerability to climate change, and to build momentum and trust on climate action, ICIMOD is working with the UNFCCC secretariat to help countries make the most of the ETF by building capacity, creating a regional knowledge hub, and promoting peer learning and knowledge sharing.  It is also about helping countries become climate champions, embracing science, working together for ambitious climate actions in the light of the harsh realities of life in the mountains. 

When I was young, I was often told that nature is the ultimate classroom, but somewhere along the way, I lost that childlike wonder that comes from surrendering to nature. However, my expedition to the permafrost region of western Bhutan has rekindled that dormant curiosity, reminding me never to cease questioning, nor to relent in the pursuit of answers. I have previously written about my encounter with a yak herder, which led me down an unexpected path to explore the possible links between permafrost and cordyceps.  This time, I find myself eager to recount an encounter with a creature far smaller but fascinating- the Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana).

Allow me to introduce this snout, burrowing giant rodent of the high mountains, a creature whose existence is entwined with the frozen earth it burrows.  This was another encounter which sent me spiralling not into a rabbit hole, as they say, but a marmot hole, dragging me deep into the study of their habitat and another possible relationship with the permafrost.

What piqued my interest was a fresh mound of soil on a sloping patch of ground, about 50 meters away from the campsite. It was evening, we had just completed deploying permafrost sensors, and my teammates were on their way back to their camp to retire for the day. I had time on my side to feed my curiosity.

I climbed up the slope to investigate. The mound consisted of fine, freshly excavated soil, leading into a burrow about 10-15 cm in diameter. Intrigued, I scanned the area and noticed a network of similar mounds scattered across the terrain.

As I moved from one mound to another, I came across faeces in one of the burrows – clear signs of the one that burrows, but I have yet to be honoured with the glimpse of what it looks like.  As I studied the burrow network, a question struck me: Am I looking at the work of brilliant engineers of the frozen landscape beneath them?

Eager to confirm my suspicions, I rushed back to camp to share my find and describe the scene. But apparently, my teammates were not new to these scenes. Karma Toeb, a veteran of these mountain slopes, immediately recognised the mounds and burrows. "These are Himalayan marmot burrows," he said, swiping through his phone to show me photographs from past expeditions. I leaned in, fascinated by the sturdy, fur-covered creatures captured in his shots, their body peeking out from burrow entrances.

Himalayan Marmot, as I learn, is the largest high-altitude rodent, primarily found in the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. On IUCN’s Red List, it is classified as the ‘Least Concern’ species due to its wide geographic distribution, but this seemingly friendly creature’s role in ecosystems deserves respect. They serve as prey for endangered species like snow leopards, aerate soil for plant growth, and their sinkholes enhance groundwater recharge.

But for me, their habitat was intriguing: dry, open areas with short grasses at altitudes ranging from 3,000 to 5,500 meters above sea level. This is precisely the altitude range where permafrost is likely present in the Himalayas.

Permafrost is defined as ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. It plays a critical role in maintaining ground stability by binding soil and rock and supports hydrological processes by regulating subsurface water flow and seasonal melt in high-altitude regions. Thawing permafrost can trigger landslides, land degradation, and the release of sediment and carbon, and likely change the hydrological regime, impacting the environment and local communities. Despite its importance, mountain permafrost remains one of the most overlooked components of the cryosphere in the Hindu Kush Himalaya.

Marmots spend most of the winter hibernating in their burrows, which need to remain dry and insulated from extreme cold and frozen ground. This behaviour suggests several possible relationships between marmots and permafrost. Below are some questions to explore:

1. Are marmot burrows more likely to be found in areas with no permafrost or only shallow permafrost, since unfrozen ground would be more suitable for burrow construction?
2. Does the presence of marmot burrows indicate areas with deeper permafrost, where the seasonally thawed active layer is thick enough to allow burrowing?
3. Could the upper altitude limit of marmot habitation roughly correspond to the permafrost boundary, potentially serving as a biological indicator of permafrost extent?
4. Could dense marmot burrow networks destabilise the ground and accelerate permafrost thaw, potentially triggering erosion and altering hydrological processes?

In summary, as climate warming pushes permafrost boundaries upward, Himalayan marmots, through their burrowing habits, might serve as a biological indicator of permafrost changes or even contribute to permafrost thaw by disturbing the ground. These connections present fascinating, yet complex, research questions that deserve further exploration. This field observation provided a fresh perspective on the intricate relationships between wildlife and the cryosphere in the high Himalayas – a topic that, in my view, merits much deeper investigation.

Lying on opposite banks of the Mechi River, the Naxalbari block (of West Bengal) in eastern India and the Jhapa district of eastern Nepal are en route to the Mahananda-Kolabari-Mechi transboundary passage for elephants in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Both locations witness regular elephant incursions damaging properties and destroying crop fields. The latter is a matter of grave concern, especially for the smallholder farmers on both sides of the river.

When their paddy and maize crops ripen, the farmers spend nights guarding the crop from elephants. Traditionally, they would build makeshift elevated structures of bamboo or tarpaulin near their crop fields to serve as watchtowers. But these structures can barely withstand the often-turned-lethal human-elephant conflicts, not to mention the exposure to snake and insect bites.

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) collaborated with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) to construct six concrete-built watchtowers in the Naxalbari block to provide safe and durable vantage points to local farmers for guarding their crops. This endeavour took off with ICIMOD Director General, Pema Gyamtsho, officially launching the construction of a new watchtower on 4 October 2024.

The new watchtowers are an architectural novelty to these remote locations that are predominantly reliant on temporary polyethene, wood or bamboo structures to serve the purpose of (crop) surveillance. The new towers, in contrast, can provide additional facilities such as solar-powered LED lights, and emergency shelters (with kitchens and safe storage spaces) to the villagers during elephant raids, besides being sturdy and better-elevated observation towers vis-à-vis the temporary structures. Voluntary involvement of the villagers -be it in guarding the construction sites from vandalism or in helping to cure concrete structures for durability - during the construction of the new watchtowers spoke volumes of how strongly they felt the need for such facilities that can potentially provide more safety and security for lives, livelihoods and property.

In fact, local communities had strongly expressed the need for tenable solutions to manage the risks of human-elephant conflicts at the various consultation sessions co-organised by ICIMOD and ATREE for piloting strategies for human-elephant coexistence. In tandem, ICIMOD partnered with local authorities on both India and Nepal sides in initiatives to nudge changes in community attitudes and behaviour toward managing elephant incursions.

In the Naxalbari block, for instance, the local authorities complemented ICIMOD’s initiatives by installing solar irrigation pumps to encourage farmers into growing alternative crops less attractive to elephants, and by placing solar streetlights in the vulnerable settlements to reduce accidental human-elephant encounters. Three solar irrigation pump sets and 40 solar streetlights were installed with funding support from the Department of Water Resources Investigation and Development (DWRID), Government of West Bengal and the Naxalbari Block Development Office, respectively.

The local government also allocated funds for setting up market stalls where farmers can sell the alternative crops and launched habitat restoration projects. These efforts have encouraged many farmers to resume farming that they had stopped in apprehension of elephant raids. 

Just across the Mechi river, farmers in Bahundangi village of the Jhapa district of Nepal can also harvest their crops without fearing heavy economic losses due to elephant encounters, now. Thanks to the seasonal fences installed with ICIMOD’s support. Simultaneously, ICIMOD has succeeded in fostering widespread awareness about human-elephant ‘co-existence’ through a range of initiatives starting from the inclusion of lessons on coexistence in school curriculum to supporting the Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) for managing human-elephant encounters so that the villagers can do away with hostile practices like using firecrackers to scare off elephants.

There is a positive perceptual change among the local communities – elephants are now treated as animals displaced by shrinking habitats and dwindling food sources, rather than as ‘incursors to be thwarted’. From a hotspot of human-elephant conflicts, Bahundangi is now Mechinagar municipality’s ‘model village’ of human-elephant coexistence.

With best practice cases like Naxalbari and Bahundangi on hand, ICIMOD is pursuing a holistic approach that pools together a combination of proactive initiatives such as, the construction of durable, multi-functional watchtowers, encouraging farmers in adopting crops less appealing to elephants, capacity building for human-wildlife sensitisation, advocacy and monitoring, leveraging government support, and nudging changes in community attitudes towards managing human-elephant encounters. These complementary actions are shaping up an ethos of human-wildlife coexistence along the Mechi River corridor of the eastern Himalayan foothills.

The seasonal reality of HKH air pollution  

Air pollution remains one of the most persistent and pressing challenges in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. The region is caught in a recurring cycle of toxic air, with pollution levels peaking twice a year, between October to November and from March to April. March–April pollution surge is largely driven by widespread forest fires, which have been increasing each year due to drier winters, creating a layer of tiny particles, obstructing the visibility called haze. This haze can be composed of various particles, including dust, smoke, aerosols, and smog. For the October–November period, the pollution spike is largely attributed to agricultural residue burning across the Indo Gangetic Plains (IGP) countries, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, as farmers prepare their fields for the next cropping cycle. Although these burnings are localised, their effects are widespread, affecting the HKH region with adverse environmental, socio-economic, and health consequences.  

November 2024 recorded PM2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less) air pollutant concentrations exceeding 500 µg/m3 in Lahore, Pakistan, and New Delhi, India, as recorded by AirNow. Peak haze (slight obscuration of the lower atmosphere) and air  pollution levels occurred in mid-November 2025, aligning with burning activity. The haze then moved eastward across the IGP, with rising PM2.5 concentrations in downstream cities. Dhaka, Bangladesh, recorded a noticeable rise in particulate pollution following November 12, indicating regional movement of the air pollutants. This spatial and temporal pattern confirms that the agricultural residue-driven haze events contribute to air pollution across the IGP region.  

From the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imaging data, we can see how the haze over the region decreases as the crop burning period ends. In early November 2025, satellite data captured a thick haze spreading across the IGP. Between November 4 and 7, over 1,250 active fires were recorded, indicating widespread agricultural residue burning. The haze persisted through the month, peaking in intensity toward the end of November. Although cloud cover briefly masked the smoke in NASA imagery, the haze became visible again by the first week of December. As fire activity declined to just under 200 counts, visibility improved noticeably.  

The pattern tells a clear story: more stubble (agricultural residue) burning leads to heavier haze. The data reinforce what is increasingly evident: agricultural fires are a major contributor to regional air pollution, with serious consequences for health and the environment. 

Challenge with agricultural residue burning 

In the broader context of climate change and air pollution impacts, it is unfair to highlight agricultural residue burning without acknowledging pollution from road traffic and industries. However, the challenge of agricultural residue burning persists and remains a significant contributor to air pollution. While its impact may be smaller compared to other sources, it is an issue that can be addressed through coordinated efforts involving the government, the private sector, and farmers. 

Unfortunately, discussions on agricultural residue burning, air pollution, and health impacts often overlook the struggles of farmers. Farmers' continued reliance on burning stubble, particularly in the IGP, is driven by a complex interplay of cultural norms, economic constraints, labour shortages, and tight timelines between crop cycles. The practice of burning is perceived as a quick and cost-effective way to clear large volumes of agricultural residues for the next crop season. In most parts of the IGP, wheat is planted right after rice is harvested, within approximately 20 days.   

Stubble burning persists due to several challenges, including limited awareness among farmers about its environmental and health impacts, and the widespread myth that burning returns nutrients to the soil. While subsidies exist, tools like straw choppers and balers remain costly and out of reach for many small-scale farmers. Weak market linkages for stubble, especially paddy straw, further reduce motivation for sustainable management. The transitions to alternatives for agricultural residue burning remain hindered by inadequate and fragmented policy support, particularly limited financial incentives and weak market development are making adoption difficult for farmers and stakeholders. 

Innovative pathways to manage crop residue  

There are promising solutions, such as affordable residue management technologies to policy innovations and community-led initiatives that are showing real potential to reduce stubble burning and improve air quality.  

The innovative approach of turning agricultural residue into pellets is emerging as an ambitious alternative to burning fossil fuels, creating more green jobs, improving soil health and air quality, and a home-grown economy resulting in lesser dependency on fossil fuel imports. Converting the paddy stubble into high-density pellets reduces agricultural residue burning and helps in combating the associated air pollution by substituting fossil fuel in the industries, which further thrives the clean and green environment. The integration of agricultural residues into the energy matrix can enhance energy security and diversification of energy sources. As global energy demands increase, the reliance on traditional energy sources can pose risks to energy security.  

While pelletisation is promising, there are challenges, such as transportation and storage costs, and availability of pelletisation facilities. Besides, only a handful of machinery is deployed at available pelletisation facilities, so not all farmers have access to such machinery. These factors contribute to farmers' hesitation to adopt pelleting, despite awareness. 

There are also other sustainable agricultural residue management practices where agricultural residues are left in the field to naturally decompose, which improves soil health and fertility over time. Unlike burning, this approach reduces environmental pollution and enhances productivity through methods like mulching, no-till farming, and crop rotation. This approach is encouraged as studies show they can boost cereal grain yields by up to 37%​ and significantly cut soil erosion and carbon emissions. However, adoption remains limited due to low farmer awareness, lack of machinery access, and competing uses for residues such as livestock fodder. 

Biochar is the other promising ex-situ solution for managing agricultural residue, where biomass residue is converted into carbon-rich materials to use as fertiliser in the field. This addresses the residue disposal issue while improving soil fertility, productivity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Studies show biochar can increase average yields by 11% ​ and cut 12% of human-induced emissions annually. However, high production costs and variable performance limit widespread adoption. Collaborations with research institutions and international bodies, along with strong policy support, are essential to improve production standards, build capacity, and make biochar a viable tool for sustainable agriculture and climate action. 

Optimising market linkages  

Scaling up the agricultural residue management solutions will require government support to get them off the ground. The issue of low supply of the paddy straw stubble used in the productive sector is addressed through the awareness and capacity building of farmers, but the effort is insufficient. Thus, IGP countries' strict regulations, such as mandatory enforcement of agro residue-based biomass pellets in the co-firing, and 7–20% use in thermal power plants and brick kilns could advance the scaling up of pelletisation. This enforcement would create significant market demand for the paddy straw pellets, attracting interested investors to get engaged in the paddy straw-based pellet production. 

What could the future look like?  

Managing agricultural residue needs to be heavily subsidised to offset related costs. Countries in the IGP are increasingly opting for strict rules to control open agricultural residue burning. In India, the open burning of agricultural residue can be reported as a crime. With farmers facing threats of fines and imprisonment, it has become almost impossible to engage in constructive dialogue, and it has further alienated the farming community. A more effective approach to rewarding farmers for not burning agricultural residue can foster collaboration and cooperation.  

Control agricultural residue burning and solving the smog and haze problem will require putting farmers at the centre of the conversation. Innovation and policy commitment, along with strong monitoring tools, are the keys to cleaner air and a healthier environment.  

Understanding and addressing farmers’ challenges is only the beginning. The available solutions are showing promise in addressing the current haze crisis, but these are not standalone or long-term solutions. The need to invest in research and development to explore more sustainable alternatives is ever pressing. Long-term solutions must address the cause, and not just manage symptoms.  

The World Meteorological Organisation’s (WMO) State of the Climate in Asia 2024 report predicts worsening repercussions of climate extremes in Asia, warming twice as fast as the global average.  The findings of the report corroborate ICIMOD’s 2025 HKH Snow Update and 2025 Monsoon Outlook, both forecasting escalating likelihood of (water-related) calamities for the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region of Asia, in particular.   

Continent ‘hit hard by rising temperatures and extreme weather’, states the United Nations’ authority on climate, weather, and water, as weather extremes ranging from prolonged heatwaves, and droughts, to rain cause “havoc”, “heavy casualties”, “destruction” and “heavy economic and agricultural losses” across the continent.  

While floods in Asia in 2024 were among the most severe precipitation-related events recorded since 1949, 4.8 million people were affected by drought in China in 2024, Myanmar set a new temperature record of 48.2ºC, and the Urumqi Glacier No.1 in China’s Eastern Tian Shan recorded most negative mass balance since records began in 1959, among other calamities.   

In the HKH region, 23 out of 24 High Mountain Asia glaciers show continued mass loss. Reduced winter snowfall and extreme summer heat intensified losses in most of Nepal, Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in China and Sikkim in India, among other high-altitude areas in the central Himalayas.  

The WMO report finds a belt of below-average snow cover extent (SCE) from western to eastern parts of Asia, with negative SCE anomalies dominating the central and the middle Himalayas in 2024. In tandem, ICIMOD’s 2025 HKH Snow Update, finds November 2024 – March 2025 to be the vicennial-record-low snow season in the HKH with a snow persistence of -23.6%, besides being the third consecutive year of negative snow anomaly in the region. Persisting and alarming extents of anomalies are observed in river basins like Mekong (-51.9%), Brahmaputra (-27.9%), Yangtze (-26.3%), Ganges (-24.1%), Amu Darya (-18.8%), Indus (-16.0%), where seasonal snow melts are crucial for agriculture, hydropower generation and other critical ecosystem services.  

Sher Muhammad, Remote Sensing Specialist at ICIMOD says, “These observations largely coincide with what is being seen across the HKH region as well. Seasonal snowmelt contributes approximately 25 % of annual river flows on average across the HKH, rising even higher in western basins—yet continual snow deficits are eroding this critical source, triggering early-summer water shortages, heat stress, and worry among downstream communities.”  

This is worrying news for countries like China and Afghanistan, already exposed to long-term water stress and droughts conditions.  According to the WMO report, in 2024 Western and south-western Afghanistan saw more frequent sand and dust storms than average, possibly linked to long-term drought conditions. On the other hand, the Yunnan and southern Sichuan Provinces in China experienced both winter and spring droughts, while in August 2024, drought intensified in Sichuan, the Yangtze River, and Chongqing – leading to economic losses of 2.89 billion Yuan. Persistently below-normal precipitation being a key driver of these droughts.   

While WMO reports considerable variation in precipitation anomalies in 2024 - Pakistan’s southwestern province of Balochistan and Myanmar’s Irrawaddy delta experiencing above-normal rainfall vis-à-vis China’s Altyn-Tagh and Kunlun Mountains between the Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim Basin, along with Pakistan’s western Himalayas and Afghanistan’s Hindu Kush mountains recording below-normal precipitations – ICIMOD’s 2025 Monsoon Outlook predicts a  wetter and hotter summer monsoon between June and September 2025 for most of the HKH countries, with the 2024 hotspots of rainfall anomalies, as identified in the WMO report, remaining unchanged.  

Nepal, for instance, that saw incidents of mudslides, waterlogging and sedimentation, and faced significant damages and economic losses due to excess rainfall in 2024, is again likely to receive above-average rainfall this year, along with India, China’s TAR and most of Pakistan (a country also imperiled by precipitation-induced floods in 2024).  On the other hand, among countries / areas predicted to experience below average rainfall is the already drought-affected Afghanistan with severe dryness likely to persist in its western parts.  

Simultaneously, the Monsoon Outlook predicts temperature anomalies in South Asia, including the HKH, to range between 0.5⁰ and 2⁰C above the long term-average, during June - September 2025. This prediction comes on the back of WMO’s report of frequent incidents of heatwave outbreaks across China, India and Myanmar in 2024, alongside sea-surface temperature rise in Asia at nearly double the global mean rate.  

With the findings from all these reports pointing to the ever-heightening propensity of climate extremes and catastrophes in the HKH region under the irreversible effects of accelerating climate change, anticipatory lifesaving and support actions are the need of the hour. Work of national meteorological and hydrological services and their partners is becoming “more important than ever”, states WMO Secretary General, Professor Celeste Saulo, in this context.  

According to Saswata Sanyal, Disaster Risk Reduction Lead, “The WMO report rightly emphasises the urgent need for anticipatory action in the face of escalating climate-induced disasters. This proactive approach is crucial for anticipating and mitigating disaster impacts before they fully unfold. ICIMOD recently joined the Intergovernmental Organizations' Cooperation on Anticipatory Action to further 'acting ahead of a predicted hazardous event to prevent or reduce impacts on lives and livelihoods and humanitarian needs' across HKH. This will directly empower communities to take necessary actions against the increasing threats of heavy rainfall, flash floods, and other water-related hazards in the region.”

Reminiscing the devastating impact of the 2024 monsoon floods on the communities from Kathmandu to the floodplains in Terai,  Neera Shrestha Pradhan, Cryosphere and Water Lead at ICIMOD, highlights ICIMOD’s proactive moves towards strengthening anticipatory  actions, “ICIMOD is contributing to the global EW4All initiative, aligning with its four pillars—ranging from investing in nature-based solutions to mitigating flood impacts, to ensuring localised and community-based responses. Recognising that early warning alone is not enough, ICIMOD is working to strengthen anticipatory early action and preparedness by fostering collaboration between communities and local governments. We are also working with partners to pilot gamification of training approaches — making learning more interactive, and impactful. These efforts aim to build lasting resilience in the face of increasing flood events and multi-hazard risks in our region.” 

WMO’s State of the Climate in Asia 2024 coincides with 2025 Bonn Climate Change Conference (SB62), a crucial mid-year meeting for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), from June 16 to June 26 in Bonn, Germany. This is a preparatory event for the upcoming COP30 in Belém, Brazil, with particular emphasis on adaptation and setting the agenda for COP30.  

Read the full press release here: https://www.icimod.org/press-release/state-of-the-climate-in-asia-2024-icimod-response-to-wmo-flagship-report/ 

Surging forest fire incidents in Nepal

The Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring System (FFDMS) of the Nepal Government’s Ministry of Forest and Environment, detected around 1300 forest fire cases in the country just in a month-long span between 5 March and 5April. However, the number of daily forest fire outbreaks saw sudden spikes since 21March, albeit with some day-to-day fluctuations (Figure 1). 

Plummeting air quality in Kathmandu valley

Simultaneously, a rapid assessment of the air quality data obtained from the Khumaltar air quality monitoring station in Lalitpur during this one-month period, revealed severe deterioration in air quality between March 21 and April 5 with levels of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5)  altering from 35–170 μgm^-3 and carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations ranging from 0.3–1.5 ppm; this is vis-à-vis the situation between 5-20 March  (both PM_2.5  and CO levels showing lower variability , ranging between 40 - 85 μgm^-3 and 0.4 - 0.6 ppm, respectively) (Fig 2, left panel).  

The mean PM_2.5 concentration for 21 March - 5 April was measured at 97.2 µgm-³, almost 1.5 times higher than the measured value of 65.9 µgm-³ for 5 March - 20 March. The mean CO concentration, on the other hand, was measured at 0.8 ppm for 21 March - 5 April , almost 60 percent higher than the mean value (0.5 ppm) for the preceding fifteen days. (Fig 2, right panel). Such high levels of concentration of pollutants, PM_2.5 in particular, increase the risk of cardiopulmonary diseases as well as all-cause mortality.

Fire hotspots: spatially clustered, positionally distant

While the US Government’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) MODIS satellite images corroborated with the drastic change in the forest fire situation between 21 March  and 5 April  with fire incidents being more prevalent over time and space, it also revealed higher spatial concentration of the fire hotspots in the western/southwestern side of the Kathmandu valley (Figure 3)).

To be noted in this context, that nearly 26% outbreaks were detected in the Madesh province, 25% in Bagmati, 16% in Koshi, 14% in Lumbini and 18% cumulatively in the Gandaki, Karnali, and Sudurpashchim provinces, respectively.

The FFDMS data, on the other hand, shows only one localised case of forest fire in the valley (at Lalitpur) itself during this month-long phase, while several major fire hotspots – for instance, Chitawan (147 events), Makawanpur (110 events), Sindhuli (49 events) in the Bagmati province itself, or Parsa (174), Udayapur (77), Dang (54), in the adjacent Madhesh, Koshi, and Lumbini provinces, respectively -  were detected at over 100 kilometres away from the valley.

With smoke plumes often rising to 4000-5000 metres, way beyond the typical planetary boundary layer in the region, forest fires are known for increasing the chances of long-range transport of emissions like carbon monoxide (CO), fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ozone precursors.

But how does the transport and dispersion of the pollutants occur? Empirical analysis of the process is relatively scare. Thus, to get an empirical perspective of it, especially during this year’s coinciding phase of severe air pollution in the Kathmandu valley and raging forest fire outbreaks across Nepal, we used the Khumaltar station as our receptor location for monitoring the source, transport and dispersion of pollutants in the local air¹.

Meteorological conditions and pollutant dispersion

Forest fires from dried vegetations usually intensify during the pre-monsoon months in the southern Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) foothills (of India, Nepal and Bhutan) as well as at higher altitudes close to the cryosphere, due to dry weather conditions extending through the winter season.  With longer spells of dry weather conditions becoming common in the region under the exacerbating effects of climate change, forest fires also have amplified in frequency, scale and intensity over the past ten years or so.

This years’ fierce pre-monsoon forest fires in Nepal, for instance, came on the heels of a drier-than-normal winter season - Nepal received only nine per cent of the average winter rainfall by 23 January , 2025, and the HKH region, in general, saw record-low winter snowpack this winter – and an advanced drought warning from the National Agricultural Drought Watch.  

But it is the local meteorological condition, such as wind direction and velocity, atmospheric pressure and humidity etc. in the Kathmandu valley, that appears to play a crucial role in the dispersal of the pollutants.

Using pollution rose plots, we visualised CO and PM_2.5 concentrations together with wind direction between 5-20 March and 21 March 21 – 5 April, respectively. Our analysis revealed that the frequency of winds from the southern direction increased during the fortnight of escalating fire outbreaks, coupled with a rise in the percentage of calm conditions from 10% to 15%, respectively. In tandem, both average CO and PM_2.5 concentrations in the valley’s air increased by 64% (from 0.49 ppm between 5-20 March 5 to 0.82 ppm between 21 March and 5 April) and 47% (from 65.94 µgm^-³ between 5-20 March to 97.2 µgm^-³ between 21 March and 5 April), respectively (see Figs. 4 and 5).

Emissions source and transport

Simultaneously, we used the hybrid single-particle Lagrangian integrated trajectory (HYSPLIT) model - a standard tool for simulating transport and dispersion of air pollutants – to track the source and movement of emissions to the valley during the severe pollution days, during the forest fire period.

A 48-hour backward trajectory analysis for identifying the sources of the emissions influencing daily air quality at the receptor location indicated that during the most polluted days pollutant sources showed higher likelihood of association with locations in the west/southwest of the valley where the forest fires were spatially concentrated.

The 48-hour backward trajectory for March 8, one of the days of relatively lower PM_2.5 concentration in our month-long monitoring phase, traced incoming winds mainly from south/southeast sides of the valley. In contrast, the trajectory for 2 April, when high PM_2.5 concentration was detected in the receptor location air, traced incoming winds from the forest fire prone western / southwest sides of the valley (Fig 6 top panels).

The findings from a 120-hour backward trajectory analysis for the frequency of airmass trajectories from long-distance emission sources are consistent with the surface wind patterns traced by the 48-hour back trajectories, thereby corroborating with long-range transport of emissions to the Kathmandu valley from distant sources, during severe forest fire episodes.

The 120-hour trajectory analysis, during the coinciding peak phases of pollution and forest fires, revealed higher frequency of incoming air masses from fire-affected regions outside of the valley, and hence higher likelihood of long-range transport of pollutants in the valley. In contrast, the pre-peak-fire period analysis showed higher frequency of surface winds that are more likely to bring in localised pollutants (Fig 6, bottom panels).

1. Long-range transport of air pollutants refers to the atmospheric transport of air pollutants for a distance greater than 100 km. So, by local air we mean a moving air mass over a distance ≤ 100 km. ↩︎

Bhutan’s agriculture sector – one that employs 40% of the population - is confronted with significant climate-related challenges visible in terms of change in rainfall patterns and fast drying up of spring water sources (UNDP, 2023)^[1]. Owing to this and other structural challenges, the sector’s contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been steadily declining, threatening the country’s self-sufficiency in staple crops.

In Bhutan’s 13^th Five Year Pan (13 FYP), agriculture and livestock sector are prioritised as one of the growth drivers to enhance food and nutrition security, elevate farmers’ income, and increase the sector’s contribution to GDP by investing in improving irrigation and water supply through innovative solutions to improve farm productivity. However, only 20% of cultivable land is irrigated, highlighting a critical gap in agricultural productivity. Only a small portion is effectively utilised, primarily through outdated, open-channel, gravity-fed systems. These are highly vulnerable to climate variability, resulting in reduced crop yields, more fallow land, and increased reliance on food imports. The country’s mountainous terrain further complicates irrigation, often requiring water to be lifted from rivers at lower elevations to fields at higher altitudes – an energy-intensive and logistically complex task.

Given Bhutan’s abundant green energy resource, expanding irrigation and water supply infrastructure by harnessing renewable energy (RE)-powered irrigation solutions, supported by a solid governance structure and mechanism reflecting the local context, could play a transformative role in addressing these challenges. By using renewable energy solutions, for e.g. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems to pump water uphill, Bhutan can ensure year-round, reliable irrigation and water access, reduce labour burdens, especially on women, and enhance food security, income, and climate resilience. Further, deployment of RE-powered lift systems can potentially address drinking water challenges with appropriate treatments. It’s a game-changing intersection of technology, equity, and sustainability.

Challenges for cross-sectoral integration of RE-powered lift irrigation systems

Integrating renewable energy (RE)-powered lift irrigation systems into non-energy sectors such as agriculture requires strong collaboration and engagement across multiple agencies. These solutions are inherently complex and demand a comprehensive understanding of various interrelated factors – including supportive policies and regulations, the energy supply-demand landscape, hydrology and precipitation patterns, river systems, socio-economic and cultural contexts, climatic variability, performance of water supply systems, agricultural practices, electro-mechanical systems, market dynamics, market access, and environmental risks. In essence, it is a multidisciplinary endeavour that requires a coordinated and cross-sectoral approach.

Call for a cross-sectoral committee to advance the integrated energy-water-food nexus

Taking RE-powered irrigation solutions to a large scale – whether for agriculture or public water supply – further amplifies the complexity due to the involvement of multiple institutions with either diverse or overlapping mandates and governance demands.

To address this and guide the development of an integrated approach to mainstream the uptake of RE-powered lift irrigation in Bhutan, a project advisory committee (PAC) was established through the WERELIS–Bhutan project (Women Empowerment through Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Powered Decentralised Lift Irrigation Systems) supported by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Chaired by the director general of the Department of Energy, Royal Government of Bhutan, the seven-member committee includes senior-level representatives from the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Water, the Department of Infrastructure Development, the Bhutan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and ICIMOD. This committee provides strategic guidance and oversight for implementing RE-powered lift irrigation systems, such as the WERELIS Project, and ensures the development of an enabling cross-sectoral approach.

"Every agency has its own mandate, policy, and planning framework. The biggest challenge is the fragmentation of responsibilities and accountability. More often than not, this leads to bottlenecks in implementation. The PAC is a critical mechanism that can bridge these institutional silos"

states Karma Penjor Dorji, Director General, Department of Energy, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan

Learning visit: Solar-powered lift system at Lalitpur, Nepal

On 23 May 2025, the Project Advisory Committee (PAC) members visited the Thosne Khola rural solar drinking water project site at Konjyosom Rural Municipality, Lalitpur, Nepal implemented by Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), Government of Nepal.

During the visit, the Bhutanese delegation explored how solar power is being effectively utilised in addressing community water supply systems in Nepal’s mid-hills. The team examined technical specifications and financing mechanisms that could inform similar implementations back home. The site visit aimed to showcase the potential of renewable energy solutions in addressing water challenges in Bhutan, both for drinking and irrigation, as a part of climate change adaptation efforts.  

 “The first thing that struck me about the irrigation system here is the dynamic head^[2]. It’s about 400 metres, which is a significant height. That’s huge. In Bhutan, we have one irrigation system with a dynamic head of about 150 metres, and even with that, we’re still struggling to pump water effectively. It becomes technically challenging and economically unfeasible.

But after seeing the lift irrigation system here, I was impressed by how simple and efficient it is. Despite the large dynamic head, they’re able to pump water and integrate the system for both irrigation and drinking water supply.

Another thing that stood out to me was the community’s contribution to the project. I learned that the total cost was about 21 million NPR, and around 2 million of that came from the community itself. That’s a great initiative – when the community invests their own resources, especially money, it gives them a sense of ownership and responsibility towards the system,” shares Tenzin Drugyel, National focal point for irrigation, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Bhutan. 

“The moment I saw this project site, I was immediately reminded of two locations in the east and two in the west of Bhutan where similar opportunities exist. There are many water bodies down in the gullies that can be harnessed and lifted to settlements on the mountain tops where people reside,” remarked Khandu Tshering, Principal Engineer, Irrigation Division, Department of Infrastructure Development, Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport, Bhutan. “This project demonstrates proven renewable energy solutions that are technically sound, financially feasible, and hold strong potential for replication across Bhutan – provided there is effective coordination, integration, and support in design and financing mechanisms.”

“This field visit has been very enriching, especially because Bhutan and Nepal share similar geomorphological conditions. We are both dealing with the complexities of mountain ecosystems – steep terrain, high mountains, and deep valleys,” shared Kinzang Namgay, Deputy Chief Program Officer at the Department of Water, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan. “In such landscapes, solar-powered lift irrigation presents an important alternative for delivering water to rural communities living on mountain slopes. The project implemented here is highly replicable in Bhutan. If it works in Nepal, I believe it can work in Bhutan as well.” shares Kinzang Namgay, Deputy Chief Program Officer, Department of Water, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan.

“There are three key takeaways from today’s visit,” reflects Karma Penjor Dorji, Director General, Department of Energy, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Bhutan. “First is community engagement. When communities are involved right from the beginning of the project, we see better care and maintenance of the infrastructure, especially when ownership is transferred to them.

Second is capacity building. With proper training, communities can handle minor operations and maintenance issues on their own. This not only empowers them but also plays a critical role in the long-term sustainability of such projects.

Third is the importance of appropriate technology. We often design overly complex systems, and when the technology fails, the entire project can collapse. The technology should serve the community, not the other way around. Sustainability must be embedded as much in governance and community empowerment as it is in infrastructure, and in this scheme, I can clearly see these aspects being addressed.”

In Bhutan, the adoption of new technologies is guided by the country’s development philosophy of Gross National Happiness (GNH), which emphasises sustainable, inclusive, and holistic growth. In the energy sector, this translates into a strong commitment to green and clean energy solutions. As Bhutan seeks to revitalise its agriculture sector and improve access to water amidst growing climate challenges, renewable energy-powered lift irrigation presents a viable and context-appropriate solution.

The project implemented in Thosne Khola, Nepal, offers valuable lessons on how such systems can be effectively utilised for both irrigation and drinking water supply. With strong cross-sectoral collaboration and context-specific adaptation, Bhutan is well-positioned to replicate and scale these innovations. Doing so will not only enhance water security and strengthen rural livelihoods but also contribute significantly to long-term climate resilience .

^[1] United Nations Development Programme. Assessment of Climate Risks on Water Resources for National Adaptation Plan. UNDP Bhutan, 8 November 2023. https://www.undp.org/bhutan/publications/assessment-climate-risks-water-resources-national-adaptation-plan

^[2] height that the water needs to be lifted from the source (like a river or well) up to where it’s used (like a tank or field).

Meteorological agencies across the world have predicted a high probability of a wetter-and-hotter-than-normal summer monsoon for most of South Asia in 2025. That is likely to intensify the risks of water-related disasters in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) terrain spread across the eight South Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – surmise experts from  the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in their HKH Monsoon Outlook 2025.

The summer monsoon, between June and September, is the major source of precipitation in the HKH region with significant impacts on the hydrology of its river basins, which form the lifeline of nearly two billion people in the region.  While a good monsoon is essential for replenishing these river systems, above-normal precipitations can expose the region to high risks of disastrous flash floods and landslides along the mountainous terrains and riverine floods in the plains. Historical records of floods in the region show that 72.5% of the total number of flood events recorded between 1980 and 2024 occurred during the summer monsoon season.

On the other hand, rising temperatures can accelerate cryosphere melting, contributing to short-term increases in river flow or ‘discharge’ and heightening the risk of glacial lake outburst floods, and in combination with wetter monsoon can enhance heat stress and cause waterborne disease outbreaks.

Pooling together the analyses of global and regional meteorological bodies like the 31^st South Asian Climate Outlook Forum (SASCOF-31), APEC climate center (APCC), International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), along with those from various national agencies, the Outlook predicts temperature at above-normal level in almost all eight countries with an estimated mean summer temperature anomaly ranging from 0.5°C to 2°C above-normal. High probability of above-normal precipitations is predicted for over most of India, Nepal and Pakistan. While Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar are likely to receive near-normal levels of rainfall, normal to above-normal precipitations are also predicted for the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China.

Reflecting on these predictions, Arun Bhakta Shrestha, Senior Advisor at ICIMOD, reasserted the exacerbating vulnerability of the HKH region to increasing climate anomalies and cascading climate-induced disasters, “The tragic loss of lives and extensive damage during the September 2024 floods in Kathmandu Valley is a stark reminder of the rising climate threats in the region. It is a slice of the future staring us in the face. With projections across –the board indicating increasing monsoon precipitations and a shift toward more extreme events, there is an urgent need to revamp disaster preparedness and invest in improved forecasting and impact-based early warning systems across the region.”

Extreme weather events happen on the scale of a single day, while the nature, magnitude and extent of their adverse effects vary widely over physiography and across socioeconomic groups. Forecasting these events with accuracy calls for spatially and temporally localised signals of climatic anomalies. Simultaneously, such forecasts also need to account for exposure and/or vulnerability, translating the physical hazard characteristics into socioeconomic consequences.

However, given the dual dearth of short-term meteorological prediction capability and commensurate investments in the HKH, longer-term forecasts, such as the ones compiled in the HKH Monsoon Outlook, are critical for building insights into the prospective seasonal conditions at large. According to Sarthak Shrestha, Remote Sensing and Geo-Information Associate at ICIMOD, “Sharing this information timely is important from the point of disaster preparedness. Last year’s floods and landslides were an eye-opener for the strong need for early action and coordinated response across the region.”

In view of the rising frequency and aggravating severity of extreme weather events in the region, there is a growing consensus among regional meteorologists and disaster risk management experts on the need for impact-based forecasting of meteorological parameters and events. In tandem, ICIMOD has developed a suite of toolkits for forecasting precipitation, temperature, and river discharge up to two to ten days in advance, for Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan.

“These tools are already being used by the hydro-meteorological departments of the governments of Bangladesh and Nepalto generate their flood bulletins. The Red Cross and several municipalities across Nepal use these bulletins for anticipatory actions.  The Benighat Rorang Municipality in the Bagmati Province of Nepal, for example, used these early warnings during the September 2024 floods to close schools in advance and keep almost 17,000 students safe. Our next step is to use these tools for impact-based forecasting,” says Manish Shrestha, Hydrologist at ICIMOD.

According to Saswata Sanyal, Manager, Disaster Risk Reduction Intervention, ICIMOD, “Our Community-Based Flood Early Warning Systems (CBFEWS) have proven to be life-saving tools, particularly in Nepal’s southern plains, where municipalities have adopted them to strengthen flood response. The demonstrated success of these systems has attracted interest from neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, and India, to test and replicate similar approaches in their watersheds toward end-to-end warning and last-mile connectivity. This underscores the vital role of proactive, community-centered approaches in building resilience to climate-induced disasters. At ICIMOD, we aim at converting warnings to actions – empowering communities before the disaster strikes.”

Excellencies, distinguished delegates, colleagues,

It is an honour to represent the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development — ICIMOD — at this High-Level Conference on Glacier Preservation. We extend our sincere thanks to the Government of Tajikistan for their warm hospitality and commend their leadership – alongside the many countries and organisations represented here - in bringing global attention to this urgent and escalating crisis.

ICIMOD serves eight Regional Member Countries that span the vast expanse that is the Hindu Kush Himalaya — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, and is headquartered and hosted by the Government of Nepal in Kathmandu. Often called the Third Pole, this region holds the largest ice reserves outside the Arctic and Antarctic. It is home to over 240 million people and supports water, food, and energy security for more than 2 billion people downstream.

Yet the cryosphere here – as we have heard from so many delegates already - is degrading at alarming rates, due to warming, unsustainable development, and environmental degradation. Even under the most optimistic emissions scenarios, up to two-thirds of glacier volume could be lost by 2100. Peak water is projected around mid-century—just 25 years from now—after which flows will decline. The implications of these changes for regional – even global - stability are unthinkable.

Over 200 glacial lakes are now classified as potentially dangerous—particularly in Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, and Pakistan—posing serious risks to lives and infrastructure. These are no longer future threats. The science is clear. But the response is still far too limited.

At ICIMOD, we know no single country can address this alone. Glaciers cross borders!

That is why – at ICIMOD - we work regionally to generate evidence, support decisions, and enable action. But we need stronger collaboration and far greater investment.

We urge prioritisation in five areas:

1. On Science and Risk Assessment

• Expand and sustain systematic cryosphere monitoring—including glaciers, permafrost, and high-risk glacial lakes—through in-situ observations, satellite data, and modelling. Only about 38 of the region’s 54,000 glaciers are currently monitored—far too few to support long-term planning and risk reduction.
• Strengthen trans- and interdisciplinary research and multi-hazard risk assessments, using improved tools to translate science into policy and planning.
• Build regional capacity through education, training, and field programmes to equip the next generation of cryosphere scientists—while also creating career incentives to retain skilled professionals in the region.

2. On Inclusive Adaptation and Resilient Infrastructure

• Invest in early warning systems, glacial lake drainage, water-efficient technologies, and resilient infrastructure to reduce risks from glacier melt and permafrost thaw.
• Ensure adaptation finance reaches the most exposed and under-resourced communities.

3. On Community Engagement and Indigenous Knowledge

• Engage mountain communities as citizen scientists and partners in monitoring and planning.
• Integrate Indigenous and local knowledge into formal policies and strategies.

4. On Policy Integration

• Mainstream glacier and permafrost loss into national climate, water, agriculture, and disaster strategies.
• Align policies and budgets with the vulnerabilities of high-risk mountain regions.

5. On Regional and International Cooperation

• Strengthen cross-border coordination for hazard response, data sharing, and joint planning.
• Recognise glacier loss in broader development and economic strategies.

The time for fragmented, reactive action is over. We must shift:

• From discussion to delivery
• From research alone to applied response
• From ambition to accountability

The HKH is critical to the stability and resilience of a large part of the world. Glacier preservation is not just an environmental concern—it is a core economic development issue.

ICIMOD stands ready to work with you all—to act decisively, at scale, and with the urgency this crisis demands.

Exploring digital innovation in data collection

In an era where artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly being leveraged to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), digital tools hold immense potential for development initiatives. However, in rural areas with limited internet access, AI-based solutions might seem unachievable.

Gathering insights from communities is vital to understand their water needs. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and Frank Water collaborated to conduct household surveys in two springshed sites in Nepal’s Kavrepalanchowk district (Opi and Bhelwati) using Frank Water’s Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Connect tool. Alongside these surveys, a pilot initiative by Colectiv, Frank Water, and ICIMOD tested the feasibility of collecting qualitative data through voice notes. This method aimed to assess the feasibility and efficiency gains from using AI to assist with transcription, translation, and analysis of qualitative data.

This case study highlights how a hybrid approach combining offline data collection with AI-supported analysis can enhance qualitative research in remote regions.

The pilot: Voice notes as a data collection tool

Community resource persons conducted 31 interviews with local householders, asking two key questions:

1. Drinking water preferences: Can you tell me about the different water sources you use for drinking? Which one do you consider the best, and why? (पिउने पानीका लागि तपाईंले प्रयोग गर्ने पानीका स्रोतहरूबारे बताउन सक्नुहुन्छ? तीमध्ये कुन स्रोत तपाईंलाई सबैभन्दा उपयुक्त लाग्छ र किन?)

2. Challenges in water access: Can you tell me about any problems or difficulties you face in accessing clean drinking water? Would you like to make any changes to your drinking water source? (सफा पिउने पानी प्राप्त गर्न तपाईंले भोग्नु भएका कुनै समस्या वा कठिनाइहरूबारे भन्न सक्नुहुन्छ? के तपाईं आफ्नो पिउने पानीको स्रोतमा कुनै परिवर्तन गर्न चाहनुहुन्छ?)

Community resource persons recorded participants' responses as audio notes using mobile phones. The files were anonymised, uploaded to an encrypted online folder, and later transcribed, translated and analysed using Colectiv’s AI-based qualitative analysis tool.

Insights from the field

Feasibility and challenges

• Community resource persons successfully recorded and transferred voice notes.     
• Environmental factors like harvesting seasons and severe flooding and landslide delayed data collection. This meant that we had to conduct qualitative interviews after the WASH connect survey, and this was inconvenient for both surveyors and participants.
• Background noise from people and animals and poor recording conditions affected recording quality, and this had an impact on transcription accuracy, requiring human verification for clarity.
• AI-based transcription of Nepali was functional but imperfect. The audio quality issues combined with dialect variations, and frequent use of proper nouns made a challenging test-case.
• AI-support analysis of qualitative data worked well to identify important insights from community members.

What did the community say?

Community members had a strong preference for drinking spring water. Spring water tastes sweet and good, and people feel it is healthy and good.

म ओपी मूलको पानी पिउँछु।  म जन्मेदेखि नै यही पानी पिइरहेको छु। यो पानी मलाई एकदमै स्वादिलो लाग्छ। यो नै सबैभन्दा राम्रो पानी हो किनभने यो अत्यन्तै मिठो छ । यो पानी एकपटक पिएपछि अरू कुनै पानी पिउन मन लाग्दैन। (I drink water from Opi spring, I've been drinking it since birth, it feels good, it's the best water because it's incredibly sweet. Once you drink it, you do not feel like drinking any other water)

Tap water and stored tank water were alternatives for a few people, but many avoided these sources. They use this water only for livestock or washing.

हाम्रो बोरिङ पनि छ, तर बोरिङको पानी पिउनको लागि त्यति योग्य छैन।लुगा धुन, भाडा मोल्न मात्र प्रयोग गर्ने गरिएको छ। (The water from our boring well is not as suitable, and it is only good for washing clothes and utensils.)

The main challenges they face are that the spring source can be far away and, especially in the rainy season, paths can become slippery and impassable. The spring can also get contaminated with overflowing water.

बर्खामा बाटो चिप्लो हुन्छ र हिउँदमाआफूलाईचाहिएकोजति पानी पाइदैन। (During the rainy season, the paths get slippery, and sometimes it's not easy to get as much water as wanted in winter season.)

बर्खामा मूलको पानी धमिलो हुन्छ, कहिलेकाहीँ किराफट्याङ्ग्रा पनि जम्मा हुन्छन्, र सफा पानी पाउने कुनै सम्भावना हुँदैन। (During the rainy season, it becomes muddy, sometimes insects accumulate, and there’s no way to get clean water)

People wanted improvements in infrastructures to help them have better drinking water access.  Many people requested that their preferred spring water be brought closer to their homes to reduce the burden of collecting it. If the water could be piped directly to households, or at least to nearby tanks or reservoirs, it would help avoid the difficulties of collecting water along muddy paths.

ट्यांकी बनाइदिएर धारो जडान गरिदिए सजिलो हुन्थ्यो।बूढाबुढी बारम्बार पानी ल्याएर खान सक्दैनन्। (If a tank is built or a tap is provided it would be much easier. Elderly people can’t keep carrying water back and forth)

हरेक घरमा धारो जडान गरिदिए कस्तो सजिलो हुने थियो, मलाई त यस्तै लाग्छ! (If taps could be provided at every house, it would be convenient, that's what I feel)

Others requested improvements to existing sources, such as better pathways and protective measures to prevent contamination and overflow.

पानी नपस्ने गरी अलिकति ढलानसहित पर्खाल बनाउने र सम्भव भएमा वरिपरीको भुइँ पनि ढलान गरेर ढोकाहाल्नसके अझ राम्रो र सुरक्षित हुने थियो। (It would be better and safer to construct a wall with a slight slope so that water doesn't enter, and if possible, to install a door with the surrounding ground sloped accordingly.)

पँधेरोमा जाने बाटोअलि राम्रो बनाइदिनु पर्छ।पँधेरो वरिपरी खनेर आसपासको क्षेत्र अलिकति ठूलो बनाइदिनु पर्छ र राम्रोसँग संरक्षण गरिनुपर्छ। (It would help if the roads were improved. The area around the source needs to be a little bigger and better maintained)

Community partner reflections on the use of an AI tool

As a partnership, we reflected on the inclusion of an AI tool for data collection and remote analysis. The process of solving development problems in remote regions across world has always meant involving ‘people from outside’ these communities. How much ever one may try – it’s difficult to bridge the gap between what is communicated by communities and what is understood by the ‘people from outside.’ The use of a tool like Colectiv reduces the communication gap drastically as the interpretation of what is spoken does not lie with individuals recording their responses, or in the reduction to survey items. Instead, this tool allowed all the subjective answers community members provided to be recorded verbatim without any interpretation and shows (qualitatively and quantitatively) what the community members want across various demographics within the community. We feel that needs assessment and understanding of community perceptions from such tools is closer to what the community means and not what is in the heads of interpreters, or those selected involved   in the project.

Key takeaways

This pilot demonstrated that AI-driven transcription and translation can support qualitative data collection in remote communities. In this case, human oversight was important for accuracy, but this may be less essential in other contexts. More broadly, the use of voice notes enabled researchers to capture community-driven narratives, providing valuable insights beyond quantitative survey responses.

Recommendations

• Expand the use of audio notes: Integrating qualitative questions into existing surveys can be a cost-effective way to amplify community voices.
• Explore minimum digital solutions: There is value in leveraging technologies that are available in the field in hybrid approaches.
• Improve AI capabilities in Nepali: While AI transcription is viable, more development is needed to handle dialects, accents, and non-standard pronunciations effectively.
• Invest in water infrastructure: Community members have expressed a clear need for household taps, storage solutions, and improved water access routes – critical investments to enhance water security in the region.

By combining digital tools with human-centered approaches, organisations like ICIMOD, Frank Water and Colectiv can enhance development outcomes by ensuring that community perspectives can be used to improve programme planning and delivery. The value of a household survey can be greatly increased by adding tools that gather peoples’ voices and put them at the heart of decision-making.

The tourist season is at its peak in the hill stations and high mountains across the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region as the scorching summer unfolds its arms. I remember last year, just as the snow was melting and summer was beginning, my colleagues and I were trekking to Laya – the highest settlement in Bhutan at an altitude of 3,800 metres above sea level (masl). Laya lies within the Jigme Dorji National Park, the country’s second largest park, situated in Gasa Dzongkhag, northwestern Bhutan. We drove from Thimphu via Gasa up to Tongchudrak where the road ends. We started the rest of the journey by foot. 

I was very excited as we passed through the scenic beauty of natural and cultural manifestations. However, I was also quite surprised to see scattered plastic waste that people had left behind along the walking trails, even in such a remote and otherwise pristine place. When we asked our guide about it, he explained that the litter is mostly caused by local tourists and residents. Over time, their eating habits have changed, with growing consumption of packaged food and beverages, resulting in an increase in plastic waste in the area.  

It was disheartening to see the mountain landscape marred by scattered multi-layered plastic wrappers, bottles made of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and heaps of glass bottles. Along the trails, there were small open pits which had been dug for waste disposal, but they were often left exposed, with trash blown away by the wind. In some of these open pits, I also saw trash being openly burned. Just before we entered the village, there was a huge pile of mixed degradable and non-degradable waste dumped beside the river. I said to myself that I must at least collect the waste along the walking trails on my way back, which I decided to do.  

Before leaving Laya, I obtained a couple of large sacks from a local shop owner. With one of my friends, I picked up single-use and multi-layered plastic wrappers (mostly from chocolates, chips, chewing gum, biscuits and other snacks), PET bottles, beer cans, and energy drink glass bottles scattered along the trails. As we collected the waste and walked down from Laya, the sack grew bigger and heavier; it was difficult to carry, but our determination did not waver. We brought back about 14 kilograms of waste just from the walking trail alone on our journey from Laya to Gasa. Most of the waste collected was PET bottles (e.g. soft drinks like Coke, Fanta, Pepsi) followed by beer cans, and juice tetra packs.  

Waste problems in the mountains

The above scenario resembles the fate of many other tourist destinations, religious sites and trekking routes across the HKH region. In our rapid assessment of solid waste management in high-mountain protected areas in Nepal, we found that almost 60% of the waste is biodegradable, which is often either fed to animals, buried, or used to make compost. Meanwhile, non-degradable waste is either openly dumped near rivers or burned, contaminating water sources and polluting the air, which directly or indirectly affects human health and biodiversity. 

In the Indian Himalayan Region, the ‘Himalayan Cleanup’ campaign is a local movement that began in 2018 with the aim of addressing the waste crisis. The Himalayan Cleanup’s annual waste audit found over 75% of plastic waste collected in 2024 was non-recyclable.  

In the HKH mountains, almost 45% to 60% of waste is degradable, while non-degradable waste accounts for a minimal quantity, and its effective recycling is always a challenge. Onsite waste recycling is not economically viable unless waste is aggregated. The aggregation and transportation of waste, particularly plastics and glass bottles from the mountains is very expensive. If the plastics are not compacted, transporting them to a recycling facility becomes very costly too. Likewise, handling and transporting glass bottles from mountainous terrain is very difficult, and at many places, heaps of such bottles are simply piled up and left. Transporting this waste is even more expensive due to the challenging geographical terrain and lack of motorable roads. However, in some places such as in the Everest and Annapurna regions of Nepal, local communities and hoteliers have voluntarily banned glass beer bottles, opting instead for aluminium cans which can be crushed before aggregation and then recycled. 

Informal waste workers and rag pickers play a crucial role in waste collection and segregation for recycling, but there is a huge challenge in aligning them with a formal network and ensuring their occupational health and safety. In many cases, these informal workers are from outside the province or state and the local governments do not recognise their role for incentivisation.  

Beating plastic pollution: layers of complexity

Non-degradable waste should be further segregated based on type and characteristics. For example, a plastic soft drink bottle uses three distinct types of plastic – the bottle itself is made from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), the bottle cap is made of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and the label wrapper is made from Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE). PET and HDPE are highly valuable plastics and easily recyclable, whereas LDPE is characterised by low-density molecules, which is cheap to produce but not easily recycled. Single-use plastic bags, all kinds of packaging wrappers, coating on containers and bottles, and garbage bags are all LDPE plastics, whereas multilayered plastics have thin sheets of various other materials laminated together (including aluminium, plastics, and paper) and are difficult to separate. 

LDPE and multilayered plastics are becoming a serious problem with rapid industrialisation and increased consumption of processed food resulting in consumers dumping these plastics all over the pristine mountain landscapes. Many recyclers do not use these plastics as the recovery process is difficult and costly.  

As described in the situation in Laya, the dietary habits and consumption patterns of mountain people across the Himalayas are shifting towards processed and packaged foods. This has heightened the waste problems which are further exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and lack of mountain-specific, simple and affordable waste management technologies. For example, sophisticated, modern and artificial intelligence (AI)-based waste management technologies available in the market, such as smart bins, waste-sorting robots, automatic high voltage bailer machines for waste compaction or even incinerators may not be suitable in the mountains unless they are portable, energy efficient, easily operated and maintained, and are customised to the local context depending on the waste characterisation and quantity.  

Waste solutions in a circular economy

The solutions to waste management should go beyond ‘end-of-life management’ – when a resource is no longer usable but could be recycled or upcycled towards a circular economy, whereby we can keep reusing the resources, creating a value from what could otherwise be considered waste. Here we outline some waste management solutions for the mountains: 

• Waste segregation at source: Separating degradable and non-degradable waste at the source is a first step to sustainable waste management. The degradable waste can be composted using traditional methods or using other modern options such as vermi-composting (using worms), on-site pit or bin composting, or using aerated pile composting where air circulation helps faster decomposition. 
• Waste collection site and material recovery facility (MRF): An MRF is a simple waste collection facility where all kinds of non-degradable waste are segregated. This is to recover the useful resources from waste so it can be recycled or upcycled separately to boost the local economy. The establishment of MRFs at strategic locations is the most viable option for non-degradable waste segregation and recycling. 
• Banning single use plastics: In India, the implementation of the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2021 effectively imposed a ban on the manufacture, importing, stocking, distribution, sale and use of single-use plastic carry bags with a thickness of less than 75 microns effective from 30 September 2021.  
• In Nepal, Kathmandu Metropolitan City imposed a ban on single-use plastic bags with thinness below 20 microns in April 2013, but this action was put on hold after the Supreme Court’s stay order. Although the court later ruled in favour of the Metropolitan City, the ban has not yet been effectively implemented. There should be stringent policy implementation and effective monitoring to ban single-use plastics while also providing alternative sustainable solutions to it. 
• Local initiatives to waste management: Initiatives such as the “carry me back” campaign in trekking routes in the Everest region is a successful model where tourists voluntarily carry waste bags to the nearest airport, from where it is transported to Kathmandu and a private-sector company collects it for recycling. This model can be replicated in other high-mountain, remote settlements with difficult terrain to successfully demonstrate how to segregate waste and transport it to recycling facilities.  

Similarly, the local community-driven zero waste campaign, ‘The Himalayan Cleanup’ across the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), is a clear example of a bottom-up approach to decentralised waste management and plastic recycling. In April 2025, several organisations across the IHR created the ‘Zero Waste Himalayan Alliance’ to tackle the reported 80% of single-use plastics from food and beverage packaging.  

• Using plastic waste for road construction: This is a solution being pioneered in Bhutan, India, and Nepal to reuse all kinds of non-recyclable plastics. Even LDPE and multilayer plastics can be used for this purpose which reduces plastic waste in landfill sites and minimises the cost of road construction. The Green Road initiative in Bhutan has successfully blacktopped 157 km road using 830 tonnes of plastics. This replaced 780 tonnes of bitumen imported from India, a carbon-intensive raw material derived from crude oil, for road construction.  
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) calls on companies and manufacturers to take responsibility and accountability for the waste they generate, particularly in the mountains, as waste management is cost intensive. Policies and guidelines need to be developed to implement EPR. In India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change published its ‘Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility on plastic packaging as Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2022, which provides a framework to strengthen the circular economy. 

Ways forward to incorporate waste in the circular economy

A World Bank report on solid waste management from 2018 projected that global waste generation is expected to rise 3.40 billion tonnes annually by 2050, a drastic increase from the current 2.01 billion tonnes. To curb this scenario and to bring systemic changes to effective waste management, our efforts should be threefold: 

1. Individual level: a change in behaviour and consumption patterns adopting the 5R principle: rethink, refuse, reduce, reuse, and recycle. 

2. Societal level: waste segregation at source and a communal voice for waste disposal at strategic collection points for its effective management. 

3. Policy level: stringent policy and its effective enforcement with extended producer responsibilities to make the plastic producers accountable to waste generation and management. 

In addition, there should be: 

• stricter rules and monitoring to ban the production, importing, sale, distribution and use of single-use plastics. 

• more awareness and education campaigns that are carefully designed and sustained for shifts in behaviour and mindset, aiming to achieve long-term systemic change in attitude and corresponding actions. 

• financial sustainability, which is a key to sustaining waste management actions; local governments should ensure this through user fees collection, corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds, and generating revenue from recycling and circular economy approaches.  

There is still hope as we strive to maintain and protect cleaner and greener surroundings where our future generations can thrive healthily and coexist with nature. To mark this World Environment Day 2025, let us promise to #BeatPlasticPollution, let us nurture our mother Earth and let us serve the majestic Himalayas to sustain its crucial ecosystem services flows.  

Acknowledgement
Sabitri Dhakal
Gillian Summers
Barsha Rani Gurung
Samuel Thomas

It is incredibly sad to learn that Professor U Shankar is no longer with us. He has been a great inspiration to many of us involved in teaching and research in economics in India, particularly in environmental economics, econometrics, and public policy. He provided invaluable support throughout his career. Professor Shankar’s academic achievements are truly impressive. He studied Economics at the Madras University and Annamalai University in Tamil Nadu, one of the states in India, in the 1950s. He completed his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in econometrics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the United States of America (USA), in 1967.

Professor Shankar taught at the University of Wisconsin, USA, during the 1970s and became a full professor there in 1976. He later returned to India, where he played a key role in establishing the Department of Econometrics at the University of Madras in 1978. He became the President of the Indian Econometric Society in 1993. Prof. Sankar was one of the founders of the Madras School of Economics and became its director. He served as the National Program Coordinator for the World Bank-funded Environmental Capacity Building Program in India during the late 1990s. He was one of the main resource persons for this programme, which trained many young economists and administrators across  India in Environmental Economics at that time. The programme brought a revolutionary change in the teaching and research methods in Environmental Economics in India, benefiting a generation of economists who specialised in this field. He also played a highly active role in a similar and significant programme in the broader context of South Asian countries – the South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE). In recognition of his valuable contributions to teaching and research in Environmental Economics, he was made a Fellow of SANDEE in 2009. Additionally, he was a National Fellow of the Indian Council of Social Science Research during the period 2003-2004.

In his illustrious career spanning several decades, Prof. Shankar published numerous articles in both national and international peer-reviewed journals. During the 1970s, he co-authored several papers in leading international journals, including The Review of Economic Studies (1969), International Economic Review (1970), The Review of Economics and Statistics (1973), Journal of Economic Theory (1977), among others. He also authored several books such as ‘Controlling Pollution: Incentives and Regulations,’ (with S Mehta and S Mundle, Sage Publications, Delhi, 1997), ‘Environmental Economics: Reader in Economics’ (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2000), ‘Trade and Environment: A Study of India’s Leather Exports’ (Oxford University Press, 2006), and ‘The Economics of India’s Space Programme: An Exploratory Analysis’ (Oxford University Press, 2007).

In addition to his extensive scholarly contributions, Prof. Shankar was actively associated with various professional bodies, academic boards, and policy committees in India. His teaching at several universities and other academic institutions has benefited numerous students, many of whom now hold key positions in academia.

Imagine a world where every plant, animal, and insect are catalogued, and this is accessible to everyone through biodiversity data platforms. How would that affect our understanding of nature? Knowledge, after all, is our greatest weapon in the fight against biodiversity loss.

Over the past few months, as we explored biodiversity data from across the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), we realised that open access biodiversity data platforms such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and its regional node, the Hindu Kush Himalayan Biodiversity Information Facility (HKHBIF), are much more than repositories of information on fauna, flora, and fungi. They are windows into the stunning diversity of life that allow us to explore the living organisms around us. These tools are open repositories for evidence-based decision-making in conservation actions which can inform and inspire action in ways that can change the world. One example of this is when these data are used as a supplement for IUCN Red List Assessments in preparing range maps, which is one of the criteria for categorising the conservation status of species.

This year, as the world celebrates the International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB) 2025, we want to approach open access biodiversity data platforms from the perspective of their role in achieving our global aspirations for biodiversity, climate, and the Sustainable Development Goals.

Marking the International Day for Biological Biodiversity

Since the UN General Assembly’s proclamation in December 2000, 22nd May has been the day to celebrate the diversity of life on this planet and our collective actions to protect it. The day marks the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) on 22nd May, 1992. Crucially, beyond a celebration, this day is a call to action - reminding us of what remains to be done.

How do open access biodiversity data platforms align with this year’s IDB theme: “Harmony with Nature and Sustainable Development”? This theme resonates deeply with the goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) and the 2030 Agenda and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These two sets of goals are interconnected; we cannot achieve the SDGs without reversing biodiversity loss. Simultaneously, the way we frame our actions to achieve the SDGs can drive the change towards living in harmony with nature. This vision of interconnectedness reiterates the urgent need for integrated and transformative actions to secure a sustainable, fair, equitable, and resilient future for all, where the goals of the 2030 Agenda and the KMGBF are pursued in tandem.

How can digital platforms like the GBIF and HKHBIF help achieve the KMGBF targets?

Of the 23 action-oriented global targets of the KMGBF, the GBIF and HKHBIF directly align with and contribute to Target 21: Ensure That Knowledge Is Available and Accessible To Guide Biodiversity Action. This target is crucial. It recognises that we need the most reliable data, information, and knowledge in an open and usable format – to support decisions, policies, and awareness, and effective biodiversity governance and inclusive management.

The GBIF is a global network that provides open access biodiversity data from sources as diverse as herbarium and museum collections, camera traps, field observations, monitoring sites and citizen science platforms like eBird and iNaturalist. They use common standards like Darwin Core, which organise millions of species records on its platform, enabling their systematic accreditation and use. The data is shared openly under Creative Commons licenses, allowing researchers, scientists, and others to freely use the data for research and education. As of April 2025, GBIF hosts over 3 billion species occurrence records contributed by over 1,800 institutions globally. This data has been used in academia, policy and decision making, species extinction risk assessments, and habitat suitability mapping by local, national, and large-scale intergovernmental and conventional based bodies like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES).

HKHBIF, hosted by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), brings a regional lens to this effort. It focuses on collecting, sharing, and spreading biodiversity data from the HKH region, that hosts parts or all of four global biodiversity hotspots. With over 200,000 species records already published through GBIF, HKHBIF is our regional space to mobilise biodiversity data across ICIMOD’s eight Regional Member Countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. From GBIF records, we found 3,874 species of birds, 1,339 mammals, 837 reptiles, 438 amphibians, 26,351 insects, 41,001 plants, and 14, 286 fungi within the HKH region.

Linking GBIF and HKHBIF data to the SDGs

Biodiversity data does not sit in isolation. It is crucial for achieving the UN SDGs, especially Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), Goal 10 (Reduced Inequality), Goal 13 (Climate Action), Goal 14 (Life Below Water), and Goal 15 (Life on Land). A study from the Chinese Academy of Sciences GBIF node shows how biodiversity data supports SDGs, such as Goal 10 in recognising rights, valuing biodiversity and related knowledge, and building an environment for equitable benefit sharing, and Goal 8 by linking biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods as a requirement for decent work and economic growth. Making biodiversity information available in the public domain, such as the publication of pictorial guidebooks on the region’s flora can aid in education and conservation efforts – contributing to Goals 4 and 15, respectively.

The way forward

As we mark the International Day for Biological Diversity for the 25^th time, let us recognise that platforms like GBIF and HKHBIF are more than data repositories. They are catalysts driving nature-positive actions to achieve both conservation and sustainable development outcomes. In the HKH, where biodiversity loss continues and remains less accounted for and measured – as highlighted in a Mongabay India commentary that biodiversity data from the region is poorly represented in GBIF and largely published by institutions outside the region — these platforms remind us of the power of collaboration, to bridge data gaps and amplify local voices in the global biodiversity discourse.

ICIMOD recently collaborated with GBIF and other biodiversity-mandated institutions in HKH countries such as the Zoological Survey of India, Forest Action Nepal, National Biodiversity Centre in Bhutan and National Science Library, Chinese Academy of Sciences to enhance the capacity of institutions on biodiversity data mobilisation from the HKH.

Our call to action emphasises greater investment for expanding open-access digital platforms of biodiversity data, strengthening institutional collaborations in building HKH biodiversity data repositories to highlight the status of mountain biodiversity, raising awareness on how such data platforms address the issue of intellectual property rights, and engaging and strengthening the capacity of citizen scientists to use such platforms.

By making biodiversity data openly accessible and easy to use, GBIF and HKHBIF serve as a bridge between the KMGBF and the SDGs. GBIF offers the global infrastructure needed to track KMGBF progress and monitor SDG indicators. HKHBIF contextualises this data for the HKH region, thereby supporting and motivating the HKH countries to translate global biodiversity goals into regional actions for biodiversity conversation and resilience, and in effect, find a space for the mountain voices in global biodiversity fora.

Nagaland in India’s northeast is rich in biocultural diversity, where the people have a notable aspect of connection to nature and wildlife, reflected by their cultural practices and beliefs. The Nagas’ culture and tradition, folklore and folksongs, taboos and myths express intimate relationships with the complexities of the ecological system. One example is the myth of the tattoo marks on the catfish, which are attributed to ichthyomorphosis, i.e. a human transformed into a fish.

As such, Nagaland is an exemplary case where the Constitution of India, under Article 371(A), provides special provisions for administration, and community ownership over land and natural resources. As one of India’s seven ‘sister states’, Nagaland is home to sixteen major tribes and exhibits legal pluralism within the state, with varying governance systems among different tribes.

At a global scale, the aim known as ‘30x30’ constitutes effectively conserving and managing at least 30% of terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services – by 2030. This is Target 3 of the ‘Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework’, adopted by 195 countries in 2022 at the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal, Canada.

Achieving Target 3 is considered by international scientists as the minimum action needed if humanity is to succeed in halting and reversing biodiversity decline by 2030. Experts also point to the significance of connectivity, effectiveness, and respecting and recognising the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) when carrying out conservation. In this way, the 30x30 target is imperative in Nagaland.

Nagaland: a unique case of community forest conservation

As forest dwellers, the socio-cultural, economic, and subsistence activities of the Nagas was traditionally dependent on the use of forest resources. However, over time, population pressure, deforestation and modernisation began to erode traditional forest management systems, leading to unchecked hunting and logging, and hence threatening biodiversity. In response to these challenges, communities started voluntarily designating portions of their lands as areas to conserve biodiversity. This long-standing cultural practice was later formalised and designated as Community Conserved Areas (CCAs) following the customary laws of the Naga people. The tribal councils, guided by customary laws, regulate hunting, fishing, and the use of forest resources.

CCAs in Nagaland have been in existence since the 1800s, when the tropical evergreen forest of Yingnyushang was declared as a CCA by Yongphang village in Longleng District. But the growth of CCAs as we know them today began during the 1980s. In 1998, the village of Khonoma in Nagaland initiated a community-led conservation project to protect the Blyth’s Tragopan (Tragopan blythii), a pheasant species that is categorised as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The village banned hunting of the endangered Blyth’s Tragopan and other wildlife, and imposed fines for violations. Today, there are an estimated 432 CCAs, covering 59,661.23 hectares, voluntarily managed by the tribal peoples in Nagaland (NCCAF, 2025).

CCAs – a win-win for people and nature

The CCA model offers a win-win situation for both people and nature. CCAs are led by the IPLCs through local customary laws to promote a traditional lifestyle, socio-cultural identity, spirituality, and livelihood (Kothari, 2006).

CCAs play a crucial role in preserving the rich biodiversity of Nagaland. Traditional practices like ‘jhum’ or shifting cultivation – which entails clearing a plot of land for agriculture and then leaving it to regenerate before shifting to a different plot – ensure the survival of successional species, thus increasing overall biodiversity metrics. It also prevents the forest stand from reaching the climax stage, maintaining species evenness and diversity. Another example is the alder-based farming practiced in Khonoma, which promotes sustainable land use by ameliorating soil fertility and providing livelihood resources simultaneously.

However, there are significant challenges to the sustainability of CCAs, as there is no sustainable financing mechanism for managing them. The ban on traditional hunting limiting resource use has also created stress and ambiguity among the people of Nagaland. Furthermore, the transmutation of CCAs into Community Reserves (CRs), a formal protected area, imposes similar restrictions on land use change and inherits certain rules that are applied in other protected areas (PAs) as per the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2002, 36A – 36D (Government of India, 2002). In simpler terms, once declared CRs, the government controls the use of resources and activity inside the community reserves.

To address these issues, CCAs in Nagaland require a different designation, such as ‘Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures’ (OECMs) so that they can continue to be managed as CCAs with support from the national and international community and gain clear recognition of the efforts of the community in conserving biological diversity at regional and global scales.

CCAs as OECMs – a prime opportunity?

One promising solution to gather global attention and funding for the management of CCAs is the incorporation of CCAs as OECMs(IUCN-WCPA Task Force on OECMs, 2019; Hoffmann, 2022). OECM is defined as "a geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in-situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values” (CBD, 2018). The state of Nagaland could potentially recognise all 52.07% of the state’s forests as OECMs (Forest Survey of India, 2023).

Even in other areas that are not considered forest, Nagaland holds tremendous potential for OECMs across agro-ecological landscapes such as jhum areas, alder-based farming systems, and the zabo system that support a great diversity of farmland-dependent species and related ecosystems. Zabo means ‘impounding of water’; this system integrates water harvesting and agriculture, where the rainfed water is collected and used in multilayers for domestic use, animal rearing and growing vegetables.

OECMs are often perceived to be synonymous with protected areas, but there are key differences. The primary objective of PAs is to achieve conservation outcomes (not excluding other related benefits), while the primary objectives of OECMs are not limited to conservation benefits, but include cultural preservation or other traditional purposes, and recognise diverse governance mechanisms, which align with the management of CCAs (Sharma et al., 2023). OECMs duly recognise and support IPLCs and their contribution to conserving local biodiversity (Jonas et al., 2021). The integration and adoption of OECMs into policy, planning, governance, and management of areas important for biodiversity can help achieve ambitious conservation goals like 30ᵡ30, and ‘Nature needs half’(Dudley et al., 2018) – an international coalition that advocates for the protection of at least half of the Earth’s land and oceans to ensure the health of ecosystems and biodiversity.

The table below summarises how CCAs in Nagaland align with OECM criteria (Table 1).

Policy support and gaps

The government of India has developed criteria and guidelines on identifying an OECM in the country (MoEFCC, NBA & UNDP 2022). The state-specific legislation, Nagaland Village and Area Councils Act, 1978, empowers village councils to manage natural resources, providing a governance framework essential for OECM recognition.

Despite subsidiary provisions supporting the transition of CCAs to OECMs, challenges remain, such as overlapping mandates between customary and statutory law, and lack of specific legal frameworks for recognising CCAs as OECMs. Complicating this further, the state regards all the forests under community management as unclassified state forest, not only in Nagaland but also in neighbouring states like Arunachal Pradesh. Thus, if we are exploring CCAs as OECM, we are limited by the very first OECM criteria.

A second concern among communities is the loss of control with the change to OECM. They cite the case of transformation of CCA to community reserves (formal protected areas) which excludes them from claiming the OECM title. A third concern is the history of PA formation, exclusion of communities, and restrictions on their rights to access natural resources.

To understand more, we must dig deep into political ecology on how the benefit-sharing promises by the government to the real stewards are overshadowed and rights to resources are restricted.

These ambiguities in management and status of the CCAs as potential OECMs need to be resolved with new central and state-level policies that articulate rights and responsibilities clearly and don’t impinge on the rights and special status that communities enjoy in Nagaland.

This recognition requires multi-stakeholder dialogue between the Naga people, and state and national governments. This recognition also needs to be advocated through media campaigns, outlooks, and communication products to build awareness among policymakers and IPLCs about the benefits of implementing the OECMs and to design effective legal mechanisms for safeguarding the rights of communities in the transformation of CCAs to OECMs.

Overcoming challenges to recognise conservation stewardship

CCAs in Nagaland represent a powerful model of Indigenous-led conservation, deeply rooted in the cultural and spiritual practices of the local tribes. However, to ensure their sustainability and effectiveness, it is crucial to address the funding and legal ambiguities and challenges they face. By aligning CCAs with OECM criteria, we not only preserve biodiversity but also uphold the cultural and socio-economic values integral to the people of Nagaland and ensure recognition and reward for their conservation stewardship beyond the national scale. Community efforts in conserving and managing CCAs in Nagaland deserve special recognition nationally and globally.

Disclaimer: All views, statements, and opinions expressed in this blog are solely those of the authors. They are drawn from various articles and reports, and do not necessarily reflect the views of ICIMOD, including any statements regarding the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product.

Ramesh Kathariya is a Research Associate at ICIMOD
Supongnukshi Ao is the Chief Conservator of Forests & Member Secretary of the Nagaland State Biodiversity Board (NSBB)
Sunita Chaudhary is Biodiversity Lead at ICIMOD

References

CBD. (2018). Decision adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Convention on Biological Diversity.  https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-14/cop-14-dec-08-en.pdf

Dudley, N., Jonas, H., Nelson, F., Parrish, J., Pyhälä, A., Stolton, S., Watson, J. E. M. (2018). The essential role of other effective area-based conservation measures in achieving big bold conservation targets. Global Ecology and Conservation, 15, e00424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00424

Government of India. (2002). The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002. Retrieved from https://indiankanoon.org/doc/897686/

Hoffmann, S. (2022). Challenges and opportunities of area-based conservation in reaching biodiversity and sustainability goals. Biodiversity and Conservation, 31, 325–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-021-02340-2

Forest Survey of India. (2023). India State of Forest Report 2023, Volume 1. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. Retrieved from https://fsi.nic.in/uploads/isfr2023/isfr_book_eng-vol-1_2023.pdf

Imlinungla, S. (2023). Understanding the community conserved areas: Rediscovering the role of indigenous peoples. International Journal for Research Trends and Innovation, 8(5), 2233-2237. Retrieved from https://ijrti.org/papers/IJRTI2305222.pdf

IUCN-WCPA Task Force on OECMs. (2019). Recognising and reporting other effective area-based conservation measures. IUCN. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2019.PATRS.3.en

Jonas, H., Ahmadia, G., Bingham, H., Briggs, J., Butchart, S., Cariño, J., Chassot, O., Chaudhary, S., Darling, E., DeGemmis, A., Dudley, N., Fa, J., Fitzsimons, J., Garnett, S., Geldmann, J., Golden Kroner, R., Gurney, G., Harrington, A., Himes‐Cornell, A., & Weizsäcker, C. (2021). Equitable and effective area‐based conservation: Towards the conserved areas paradigm. Parks, 27(1), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2021.PARKS‐27‐1HJ.en

Kothari, A. (2006). Community conserved areas: Towards ecological and livelihood security. PARKS, 16(1), 3–13. Retrieved from https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/import/downloads/parks_16_1_forweb.pdf

MoEFCC, NBA, & UNDP. (2022). Criteria and Guidelines for Identifying Other Effective Area Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) in India. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, National Biodiversity Authority, United Nation Development Programme. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/india/publications/criteria-and-guidelines-identifying-oecms-india

NCCAF. (2025). Nagaland CCA Forum. Community Conserved Areas South Asia. Retrieved on 10 February 2025 from https://nccaf.communityconservedareas.org/

Sharma, M., Pasha, M. K. S., Nightingale, M., & MacKinnon, K. (2023). Status of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) in Asia. Bangkok, Thailand: IUCN Asia Regional Office. Retrieved from https://iucn.org/sites/default/files/2023-11/status-of-oecms-in-asia-report-high-quality_compressed.pdf

Guest authors: AKM Saiful Islam, Md Hasanur Rahman, Iffat Jahan Shammee and Zarin Tasnim.

From fishermen risking their lives at sea, to farmers fearing the loss of their land and homes, to entire villages grappling with the long-term economic and psychological toll of recurring disasters – cyclones continue to reshape the daily realities of communities in Bangladesh. Their stories are a stark reminder that climate-driven disasters threaten not just homes, but livelihoods, and community resilience. Cyclones often do not occur in isolation, but are part of a compound and cascading hazards. How can researchers work together to build the resilience of communities in coastal Bangladesh?

A team from Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), AKM Saiful Islam Professor at Institute of Water and Flood Management (IWFM), BUET, Iffat Jahan Shammee, Md Hasanur Rahman, Saleh Sakib Ahmed, and Zarin Tasnim, and ICIMOD representatives Manish Shrestha and Bipin Dulal, collaborated on a study focused on compound and cascading hazards of cyclones in Bangladesh. The team identified heavy precipitation, erosion, salinity and floods as an associated hazard to cyclone in the coastal regions of the country. This team was formed during the hackathon organized by ICIMOD in September 2024.

Cyclones in Bangladesh

Due to its unique geography, Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to devastating cyclones. Although only 5% of all cyclones in the world occur near the coast of Bangladesh, this 5% account for 80% of all cyclone-related deaths (Debsarma 2009). Cyclones in Bangladesh generally occur in the pre-monsoon (Mar–May) and post-monsoon (Oct–Nov) periods (Rahman et al., 2024). Since 2019, Bangladesh has been hit by 16 cyclones originating from Bay of Bengal and moving inland, causing devastating impacts. Bangladesh was hit by cyclones Dana and Remal in 2024, Midhili, Hamoon, and Mocha in 2023, Sitrang, Jawad, Gulab and Yaas in 2022, and Amphan, Bulbul, and Fani in 2020 (Bangladesh Cyclones). There needs to be a deeper understanding of how cyclones can trigger other hazards – leading to cascading, compound, and/or amplifying impacts – especially in the context of climate change, which communities may not be fully equipped to handle.

Insights from the field

Bangladesh’s southeastern coastal region is one of the most cyclone-prone areas in the world. From 1582 to 2020, nearly half of the country’s 88 recorded cyclones struck this region, wreaking havoc on lives and livelihoods (Siddik et al., 2022). We carried out field visits and surveys across cyclone-prone coastal areas, engaging directly with local communities and Union Parishad¹ representatives from Anowara, Pekua and Banshkhali Upazilas² , parts of Bangladesh’s southeastern coastal belt. These interactions provided crucial insights into the daily activities and challenges faced by the residents. The livelihoods in these coastal regions are predominantly dependent on fishing, agriculture, and salt mining, all of which are highly vulnerable to the impacts of cyclones and coastal hazards.

Voices of the community

Abdur Sabur Chowdhury, ex-chair of Banshkhali Upazila, mentions that communities in the area experience at least one cyclone annually, significantly disrupting their daily lives, damaging homes, and jeopardizing their livelihoods. The effects are not just physical but also economic and psychological, leaving long-term impacts on communities.

Bashir Ali, a fisherman aged 35 living outside the embankment, recalls his experience: "During Cyclone Fani (2019), my house was there (Banshkhali). After Fani, the river eroded, and my house is gone. This was my birthplace, my home." (sic)

Similar situations have been observed in Anowara Upazila. Gouro Das, a fisherman aged 70, shares his struggle: "Every year, cyclones stop us from going to sea – this happens around 5–6 times a year. Sometimes, during a cyclone, we have no choice but to continue fishing because of Dadon (loan). Our livelihood, our lives – everything is under threat."

Tarek, a farmer aged 42 from Raychata in Banshkhali Upazila, constantly worries about losing the home he has lived in for 15 years. He expresses his fears: "During cyclones, I always worry that my house will be gone, and I’ll be homeless once again – just like after the 1991 cyclone."

Ranu Akter, (30) of Raychata, sheds light on the critical challenges faced by women during cyclones, emphasising the severe shortage of freshwater, and the absence of adequate sanitary facilities. “Food supplies are scarce, and accessing the sanitary facility becomes a daily struggle for us.”

These voices reflect the struggles of most households in the region, highlighting the harsh realities faced by coastal communities in Bangladesh.

Mitigating the impact of cyclones

The government has implemented several measures to mitigate the impact of cyclones on vulnerable communities, including the construction of cyclone shelters, early warning systems, evacuation routes, and coastal dykes (structures, typically made from earth, stone, or concrete, designed to prevent water from flooding). One such initiative is the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) established in 1972 by the then Bangladesh Red Cross Society (now Bangladesh Red Crescent Society, BDRCS) with the assistance of the then League of Red Cross Societies (now International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, IFRC) and the Bangladesh government.

Many cyclone shelters also function as multi-purpose buildings. In Khankhanabad of Banshkhali Upazila, there are 15 government primary schools that also serve as cyclone shelters. To help manage the crisis, the Union Parishads have prioritised evacuating persons with disabilities and ensuring the availability of dry food supplies at the shelters. In addition, several non-government organisations (NGOs) actively evacuate people from vulnerable areas and provide essential support to affected communities.

In Rajakhali union, Pekua Upazila, southeastern Bangladesh a unique coastal water management system supports both salt farming (marine ecosystem) and agriculture (fresh-water ecosystem) separated by a single lane road. This system is unique because it integrates salt farming and agriculture within proximity, separated by a single road, allowing both marine and freshwater ecosystems to thrive sustainably despite coastal flooding risks. This system showcases an effective balance between economic activities and agricultural sustainability, demonstrating a successful adaptation practice that supports both livelihoods despite coastal flooding challenges.  

Mitigation challenges  

The mitigation efforts can only go so far when the infrastructure itself is failing. The construction of dykes was abandoned due to budget constraints in Rajakhali. Additionally, in some areas of Gahira, Anowara Upazila, southeastern Bangladesh cyclones have eroded sections of the dykes. The local community in Gahira has raised concerns that the weakened sections of the dykes could be breached during the next cyclone, potentially resulting in extensive flooding.

During the key informant interviews (KII), Mohammad Syed Nur, a Union Parishad member of Raypur Union, Anowara Upazila, stated that the number of cyclone shelters is insufficient, and emphasised the need for construction or repair of access roads leading to these shelters.

Selim Ullah, a member of the Rajakhali Union under Pekua Upazila express their similar concerns, “due to the highly vulnerable conditions of the dyke, I and my family will immediately abandon our home after we will receive a warning”.

Senwara Begum, panel chairman of Rajakhali Union Parishad, highlighted the challenges of poor communication systems and inadequate infrastructure – such as electricity and mobile networks – during cyclones. Drawing from her experience, she stated, “During Cyclone Mocha in 2023, the warning issued for Rajakhali was Signal 5 [danger signal], but in reality, the severity escalated to Signal 8 [greater danger signal]."

Geographic location plays a pivotal role in impacting government focus on disaster preparedness. The regions in remote areas get less attention from the government. "Khankhanabad is a remote area, and that means it gets less attention from the government when it comes to disaster preparedness," said Mohammad Jamal Mia, union administrative officer. "When a cyclone strikes, poor road conditions make it difficult for people to reach safety zones, with the most vulnerable suffering the most.”

However, on the other side of the spectrum, a well-known popular destination also faces a similar issue. The severe erosion along the marine drive road between Cox’s Bazar and Teknaf, a popular beach destination, holds significant threats for tourism. Due to global warming, the increased frequency and intensity of cyclones pose an additional threat along the marine drive road that runs parallel to the 120km-long beach.

"We need urgent action – not after a disaster strikes, but long before it ever happens,” the union administrative officer urged. Without immediate investment in resilient infrastructure, lives will remain at risk with every passing cyclone season.

What’s next?

Insights from the Bangladesh case study, combined with findings from other hackathon projects, will provide valuable input for testing the MHRA framework. ICIMOD will organise the HKH DRR Knowledge Hub in 2025 to share knowledge and key lessons from the case studies.

Beyond knowledge sharing, the next step is direct engagement with the National Disaster Management Authorities of the HKH countries. ICIMOD aims to advocate integrating the MHRA framework into national policies, working closely with these agencies ensuring a proactive and co-ordinated approach to multi-hazard risk reduction. This includes the development of standardised methodologies for multi-hazard interaction modelling, and developing multi-hazard early warning systems.

However, the success of this initiative hinges on continued investment in research, capacity-building, and on-the-ground implementation. Strengthening regional co-operation, enhancing data-sharing mechanisms, and fostering adaptive strategies will be essential in mitigating the escalating risks posed by climate-induced disasters. Additionally, building local-level resilience through community-driven approaches must remain a core priority, ensuring that the most vulnerable populations have access to life-saving resources, and infrastructure.

With an immediate decisive action, we can help at-risk communities withstand, and recover from cascading disasters. The road ahead is challenging, but through collective efforts, innovative solutions, and policy-driven action, we can help build a safer and more resilient future for the HKH region and beyond.

¹ A Union Parishad is the smallest rural administrative and local government unit in Bangladesh. The member of Union Parishad consists of a chair and members who are directly elected.

² Upazila is an administrative region functioning as a sub-district. It is positioned between districts and Union Parishad. An Upazila may consist of 5-17 Union Parishad.

With climate change accelerating, disasters are no longer isolated events across the globe. In the Hindu Kush Himalaya, increasingly complex and interconnected natural hazards are becoming more frequent. Events such as floods, landslides, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), and cyclones – whether occurring independently or interacting – are causing massive loss and damage (Maharjan, et al., 2021). The impact of such events in the countries of the HKH is elevated due to its dense populations, fragile geography and rapid unplanned development (Tsering et al., 2021).

Addressing these challenges requires a shift from assessing single hazards to a comprehensive multi-hazard risk assessment (MHRA) approach. Multi-hazard risk assessment is a process of evaluating the impact of multiple natural hazards in a specific geographic area and time. By examining how different hazards interact and amplify one another, policymakers and communities can better prepare for future disasters. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is at the forefront of these efforts, working to develop innovative disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies that integrate MHRA into planning and policy frameworks across the region. By bringing together experts and policymakers, ICIMOD plays a critical role in ensuring that risk assessments translate into real-world policies that protect lives and livelihoods.

ICIMOD’s efforts in multi-hazard risk management

As a regional intergovernmental hub, ICIMOD facilitates knowledge sharing and learning among its eight Regional Member Countries (RMCs) – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, aiming to influence policy and practices to address critical environmental and livelihood challenges.

A key component of ICIMOD’s 2030 strategy, and especially within our Action Area on cryosphere and water and our Intervention on DRR – is a strong emphasis on MHRA, which aims to understand how various hazards interact. This approach helps communities and policymakers in the HKH develop effective mitigation strategies in response to the growing frequency of such disasters.

One example from the HKH includes the cascading floods in Melamchi, Nepal in 2021, which were triggered by heavy rainfall, snow melt, a GLOF and ‘landslide damming’ – a permanent or ephemeral interruption of a river caused by landslide deposition. Other examples include the devastating floods in Sikkim, India in 2021, resulting from intense rainfall combined a GLOF; and the compound impacts of a dry winter followed by widespread forest fires in Nepal in 2024. Such extreme events underscore the critical need for integrated MHRAs in the HKH.

ICIMOD’s mid-term action plan for 2023–2026 emphasises the need for RMCs to integrate innovative DRR approaches into their policies and investments. To achieve this, ICIMOD has been advocating for the adoption of comprehensive MHRAs that consider cascading, compound, and amplifying impacts.

ICIMOD developed a MHRA framework in 2022–23. With the increasing impact of multi-hazard risks in the HKH, the team revised the draft framework to integrate how hazards interact with each other in the region through computer modelling. These modelling helps to analyse past disaster as well as future scenarios. The proposed framework also aims to assist stakeholders in implementing MHRAs, in order to enhance resilience and inform effective risk mitigation strategies.

Multi-hazard modelling hackathon

As a part of its efforts to provide the RMCs with a regional framework for MHRA that addresses interaction between the hazards, ICIMOD’s DRR intervention team organised a five day ‘hackathon’ in September 2024 at Lalitpur, ICIMOD headquarter. A hackathon is an event, typically lasting a few days, where individuals or teams collaborate intensively to create ideas or innovative solutions, within a limited time frame.

The MHRA hackathon brought together experts, early career professionals, and students with a background in modelling to form interdisciplinary groups to MHRA case studies. These case studies are aimed to leverage computer models, remote sensing data, field research, and secondary data sources to test the HKH-MHRA framework. Six different teams were formed during the MHRA hackathon, each team focusing on specific hazard interactions such as cyclone, drought, forest fire, Glacier Lake Outburst Flood, and landslide.

As a part of the MHRA hackathon, participants and experts from these teams visited the Melamchi area in eastern Nepal, which had been hit by severe flooding in June 2021, to observe the cascading impacts of the disaster and to model different scenarios of hazard interaction in the different RMCs. Melamchi flood-affected area to. A report published by ICIMOD confirmed that heavy rainfall, snow melt, erosion of glacial deposit, glacial lake outburst, landslide and river damming, riverbank erosion and debris deposition triggered severe flooding in Melamchi river and caused damages to the nearby areas.

End game

The primary objective of the project is to develop a validated and replicable MHRA framework. Once established, this framework will be disseminated across the RMC counties. The project will then move toward actively engaging with the National Disaster Management Authorities of the HKH countries. ICIMOD intends to promote the integration of the MHRA framework into national policies by collaborating closely with these agencies to foster a proactive and coordinated approach to multi-hazard risk reduction. This effort will pave a path on creating methods for modelling multi-hazard interactions and advancing multi-hazard early warning systems.

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) family is deeply saddened by the loss of a distinguished food microbiologist, mentor, and leading expert on the ethnic food cultures of the Himalaya, Professor Jyoti Prakash Tamang.

Tamang served as ICIMOD Mountain Chair from 2019–2021. During his tenure, he worked closely with Himalayan University Consortium (HUC) members in Bhutan, China, and Myanmar to conduct research on ethnic foods and promote regional collaboration for research on mountain food systems and cultures.  

Prof. Tamang was born in Darjeeling, India, in 1961. He completed his PhD in microbiology from the University of North Bengal, India, in 1992; post-doctorate research in molecular microbiology from the National Food Research Institute, Japan, through the United Nations University – Kirin Fellowship in 1995; and another post-doctorate research from the Institute of Toxicology and Environmental Hygiene, Germany, in 2002, through the Volkswagen Foundation Fellowship.

As a pioneering food microbiologist, his work centred on the interpretation of ethno-microbiology to metataxonomics and metagenomics associated with fermented foods and beverages prepared and consumed by different ethnic peoples of the Himalayan region of Bhutan, India, and Nepal. His research covered a wide range of subjects – from microbiome diversity and food safety to nutrition and probiotics. He published several books and over 155 research papers.

Prof. Tamang continued to provide mentorship and guidance to HUC early/mid-career researchers from the region in collaborative research and education on food and nutrition security and ethnic culinary heritage. He was an active member of the HUC Thematic Working Group on Mountain Food Systems.

Prof. Tamang taught microbiology and biological sciences for 33 years and supervised several doctoral and post-doctoral students. At Sikkim University, India, he served as the officiating Vice-Chancellor during 2017–18 and from 2011 till his departure, as Professor of Microbiology and Dean of the School of Life Sciences. He received several prestigious awards, such as the United Nations Association of University Women Award in 1996; National Bio-Science Award of the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, in 2005; and Gourmand World Cookbook Award in 2010. He served as a Fellow of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, India; the Indian Academy of Microbiological Sciences; and the Biotech Research Society of India.

Chi Huyen (Shachi) Truong, HUC Secretariat, said: "Prof Tamang was a passionate lifetime advocate for genuine dialogue between modern science and Indigenous traditional ways of knowing. Approachable and young-at-heart, he inspired generations of scholars and students to thrive for academic excellence while keeping the core respect for local knowledge. As one of three ICIMOD Mountain Chairs, Prof. Tamang laid the foundation for regional collaboration in scientific research and education on mountain-focused, HKH-specific issues amongst the HUC community. His personal warmth and scholarly dedication will be missed by his fellow ICIMOD Mountain Chairs, HUC fellows and affiliates who were fortunate to receive guidance from him, and the HUC community at large."

Bandana Shakya, Landscape Lead at ICIMOD said she was “deeply saddened" by Prof. Tamang’s death. She described him as “a brilliant mind and passionate advocate for local food systems and nutritional security. Working with him on our book on ethnic cuisine and sustainable food system dialogue was an inspiring journey for me. His deep respect for traditional knowledge around local food and dedicated research on their nutritional value will certainly leave a lasting impact, especially to enrich our food heritage from the Himalayas. May his good work continue to inspire and guide us.”