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By: Alisha Adhikari
Nestled in the rugged mountain landscape of Karnali province in western Nepal, Tatopani Rural Municipality of Jumla District offers a unique glimpse into the resilience and ingenuity of its farming communities. During my field visit to Tatopani from 18 to 24 June 2024, I gained profound insights into the area’s intricate farming systems and livelihoods as well as the challenges posed by climate and environmental change. The visit was facilitated by ICIMOD and Agriculture and Natural Resources Based Solutions (ANRBSI) Pvt. Ltd., as part of the developing Climate Resilient Agriculture Farming Plan for Tatopani Rural Municipality under the Renewable Energy for Resilient Agri-Food Systems (RERAS) project funded by the Government of Norway and led by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Agriculture in Tatopani is not just a means of sustenance; it is the backbone of the local economy and a vital component of the community’s identity. The impressive variety of crops cultivated, most notably rice (also known as paddy), barley, buckwheat, potatoes, maize, millet, walnut, apple, beans and other pulses, reflect the rich agricultural diversity of the area. A key feature of the agricultural landscape is the cultivation of an indigenous cold-tolerant rice variety, certified as Jumli Marshi rice (Oryza sativa var. japonica) by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Farmers in Tatopani practice crop rotation – they plant a series of different crops in the same plot, in order to ensure the soil doesn’t get drained of the same nutrients, and to discourage pests or weeds that prefer one specific crop. Some crops replenish nutrients used up by other crops, and crop rotation will lower the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds. For example, combinations like paddy-beans, paddy- wheat-millet are commonly followed in Jumla. Rotating crops such as legumes (e.g., beans), with cereals (e.g., rice or wheat) helps replenish soil nutrients, especially nitrogen. This reduces the need for fallow periods to restore soil fertility, enabling uninterrupted farming and increasing land use efficiency. By using specific crop rotation patterns, the farmers demonstrate a systematic approach to agriculture. Common mixed cropping patterns include maize-bean, finger millet-bean, wheat-bean, and wheat-barley-maize-apple-bean-cauliflower. This rotational and mixed cropping strategy has helped enhance soil fertility, manage pests, and diversify crop yields, ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity. Many households also engage in livestock rearing, mainly of sheep and goats, which provides additional income and nutritional support. However, adverse weather conditions and climate change impacts have posed significant challenges to agricultural productivity.
During our field visit to Tatopani Municipality, we had the opportunity to interact with the Budhbudhe Samuha, a farmers’ group with 25 dedicated women members supported by the Karnali Integrated Rural Development and Research Center (KIRDARC). Through this interaction, we gained valuable insights into the farming patterns and the challenges faced by farmers, and also into gender-based roles and responsibilities.
The group’s members shared how their traditional and innovative farming practices are adapted to the unique climatic conditions of Jumla. They explained the division of labour within their community, highlighting the significant roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture.
Women have a major role in agricultural activities, from sowing to harvesting. In addition to their economic contributions, women manage household chores and childcare, contributing to the overall wellbeing of their families. Men often take on more physically demanding tasks in agriculture and are also involved in wage labour outside the municipality. Men also tend to migrate to India for seasonal work, bringing back remittances. The families use those earnings primarily to buy food and to support their children’s education. Decision-making and financial control remains with the men, resulting in greater economic and social influence of men over women.
“Climate change has exacerbated this disparity by increasing the workload for women, who now face additional responsibilities in managing the household and agricultural tasks affected by changing weather patterns,” explained Sunita Pariyar, a member of Budhbudhe Samuha.
Climate change has significantly altered farming patterns in Tatopani Municipality. The reduction in the cold spell necessary for apple cultivation has led to a decline in yields. Additionally, the increasing infestation of pests and diseases like neck blast in rice and woolly aphid in apples has compromised crop health and productivity. The effects of climate change on agriculture have impacted the livelihood of local people in several ways.
The delicate balance between farming and livestock management has been disrupted. Erratic weather patterns and the rising population have led to a scarcity of water and forest resources, which in turn has reduced the availability of fodder for livestock. This decline in fodder production has adversely impacted livestock and the manure supply that is vital for maintaining soil fertility and crop yields. The decrease in both agricultural and livestock productivity has weakened household financial stability, increasing the community’s vulnerability to further climate shocks.
To face these challenges, farmers are adopting various practices to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture. They have embraced crop rotation and the use of botanical or natural pesticides to manage pest pressures sustainably. This approach not only optimises yields but also reduces costs and reliance on chemical pesticides, promoting a healthier environment. Labour migration has also become a common coping strategy for many farmers during the agricultural lean season, providing additional income and reducing economic vulnerability. Meanwhile, the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties, such as Jumli Marshi rice, foxtail millet, and mulching techniques further enhance resilience against climate variability, ensuring more stable yields despite fluctuating weather patterns.
The municipality’s Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) Farming Plan aims to address these challenges through targeted interventions and capacity-building initiatives. The plan was drafted following a series of consultations with diverse stakeholders from the area, and then shared with the implementing partners and UNDP for review. By fostering collaboration among farmers, researchers, and policymakers, the plan seeks to create an environment for participatory action research and innovation for building sustainable and resilient agricultural ecosystems. ANRBSI also developed a CRA Farming Plan for a second municipality, Budhinanda Rural Municipality.
My journey to Tatopani Municipality in Jumla was more than just a field visit; it was an eye-opening experience that deepened my appreciation for the resilience and resourcefulness of local farming communities. As I reflect on this experience, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the RERAS project, ICIMOD and ANRBSI Pvt. Ltd. for providing me with the opportunity to learn from and contribute to this transformative farming plan. The heart of Jumla beats with the rhythm of its farms, and it is a privilege to witness and support their journey toward a resilient and prosperous future.
Alisha Adhikari was a member of the ANRBSI team and is currently studying for a master’s degree in economics at Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
Mentor: Kailash Bhatta, Climate Resilient Agriculture Associate of ICIMOD
In the serene village of Sadhikhola in Surkhet district, two brothers, Chandra Bahadur GC and Tek Bahadur Gharti, are rewriting the narratives of farming in Karnali province, mid-western Nepal. Originally from Surkhet, they travelled to India where they were migrant workers for many years. Their journey from labourers in India to pioneering organic farmers in Nepal epitomises resilience, innovation, and a profound commitment to their homeland.
Tek Bahadur Gharti worked as a security guard, and Chandra Bahadur GC was an employee at a mineral water plant for 16 years in India. Then they decided to leave behind their gruelling lives abroad to pursue a dream rooted in the soil of their homeland. Longing for self-sufficiency and a connection to their roots, they returned to Nepal. Today, they cultivate 24 ropanis (131,424 sq. ft.) of fertile land, growing a variety of vegetables, including cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, chilli, and brinjal or aubergine.
Recalling their struggles, Tek Bahadur shared, “We felt humiliated and insecure when we worked for others. It was not an ideal life. Now, working on our own farm gives us pride and dignity.”
Initially, the brothers relied on synthetic pesticides, unaware of the long-term harm they caused. Frequent nausea, itching, and illness led them to question their methods, which can often be expensive. Through The Green Resilient Agriculture Productive Ecosystems (GRAPE) project, they were introduced to farming practices which are climate resilient, and nature-positive alternative solutions to the unwise use of chemicals. Though sceptical at first – vegetables grown without chemicals, often referred to as organic, don’t always look as visually appealing as their pesticide-grown counterparts – they persisted.
Chandra explained, “The first year was challenging, but over time, we witnessed the benefits. Today, we’ve reduced chemical pesticide use by 85% on our farm. Not only has this improved our income, but it has also ensured our children are better nourished, and we can now afford other essential expenses like education.”
A pivotal moment came when their village was selected for demonstration of a suite of climate-resilient agricultural solutions including ‘Vermi wash’ techniques that they learned in Sikkim, a state in northeastern India, during an exposure visit organised by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Vermi wash is extracted as the liquid run-off from vermi-composting pits and contains plant growth hormones, enzymes, and essential nutrients. It acts as a natural pesticide and fertiliser, improving crop health while maintaining ecological balance. This technique is one of the many tools introduced by ICIMOD to ensure that farmers transition smoothly to organic farming.
Neighbouring communities and other districts in Karnali have embraced their methods, signalling a regional shift towards sustainable agriculture. “We work for ourselves now, and that gives us peace,” says Tek Bahadur. The farm has become a family endeavour, with their entire household involved, and they hire additional labour when needed, paying fair wages, and offering meals.
The GRAPE project, supported by the European Union, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Germany. This project was led by the German development agency, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) with ICIMOD as the lead partner for the collaborative action research component. It aimed to revolutionise agriculture in the Himalayan region. It focuses on promoting organic farming, enhancing soil fertility, and reducing dependency on chemical pesticides and fertilisers. By introducing sustainable techniques like vermi-wash – a liquid bio-fertiliser made from vermicompost – the project empowers farmers to adopt environmentally friendly and cost-effective practices.
The ‘action research’ component of the GRAPE project, led by ICIMOD, concluded in October 2024. Action research emphasises participatory research conducted with, for, and by people. Building on GRAPE’s successful outcomes, ICIMOD is now advancing its work through the Himalayan Resilience Enabling Action Programme (HI-REAP). Part of the Climate Action for Resilience Asia (CARA) initiative of the United Kingdom Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), HI-REAP is further enhancing capacity while introducing innovative Nature-based Solutions (NbS). NbS are actions which encourage the protection, sustainable management, and restoration of natural or modified ecosystems to address societal challenges while simultaneously supporting human wellbeing and biodiversity benefits. With promising results already demonstrating significant potential to transform agriculture in Nepal and the broader region, ICIMOD’s ongoing efforts under HI-REAP aim to scale these innovations for wider impact.
“We are happy to see that the Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoLMAC) in Karnali province has mainstreamed the Community Learning Centre (CLC) model and Climate-resilient agriculture (CRA) practices into their annual action plan. This will ensure their integration into broader agricultural policy, planning and practice, creating long-term impact.” — Kamal Aryal, Sustainable Agriculture Specialist at ICIMOD
While the Gharti brothers have achieved remarkable success, challenges remain. They rely on rented equipment for ploughing and irrigation. Purchasing a motor pump and a small tractor could significantly ease their workload. With annual earnings of NPR 1,200,000–1,500,000 (USD 8,800 – 11,000), they are willing to invest if provided with a 50% subsidy, which they believe is within reach given their farm’s profitability.
Despite these obstacles, their journey is an inspiration for neighbouring communities. Chandra frequently visits the Faculty of Agriculture in Mid West University in Surkhet to share his experiences, encouraging other farmers to adopt organic practices. Their farm has become a model for sustainable agriculture, influencing farmers across Karnali province and beyond.
The Gharti brothers’ climate-resilient agricultural farming journey aligns seamlessly with the Karnali Agriculture Development Strategy (KADS), developed by MoLMAC, which aims to transform agriculture through sustainable practices. As part of a larger vision to propel Karnali towards organic farming, KADS emphasises regenerative agriculture, innovative technology, and community empowerment.
The draft version of KADS was presented at a recent workshop in Surkhet in the presence of Honourable Ministers of Karnali Province, including Honourable Minister Mr Binod Kumar Shah, Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and Cooperative; Honourable Minister, Mr Rajeev Bikram Shah, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Planning; Honourable Minister, Mr Ghanashyam Bhandari, Ministry of Social Development; Honourable Minister Ms Bijaya Budda, Ministry of Water Resource and Energy Development; Honourable State Minister Ms Gamata BK, Ministry of State for Physical Infrastructure and Urban Development; Honourable Suryanath Yogi, Vice-Chair of Karnali Province Planning Commission; Dr Chudamani Paudel, Chief Secretary of Karnali Province.
At the workshop, the Director General of ICIMOD, Dr Pema Gyamtsho remarked, “This comprehensive strategy provides a clear roadmap to address the overwhelming challenges of climate change and youth out-migration. Nepal, with its abundant natural and human resources, has the potential to transform agriculture into a cornerstone of development, reversing the trend of youth seeking opportunities abroad. Achieving this vision requires inter-ministerial coordination, regenerative farming practices, and addressing challenges like pests through sustainable methods.
Key priorities include securing financial resources, strengthening institutions, and leveraging technology like agro-ecological zoning. ICIMOD is committed to supporting these efforts, but success will depend on collaboration among governments, communities, and partners. By working together, we can create sustainable growth and opportunities for future generations.”
Hon. Minister Rajeev Bikram Shah, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Planning added, “We need to reignite a sense of pride in being a farmer. Our fathers were farmers, yet we often find ourselves moving away from agriculture. However, there is hope – our youth are beginning to return to farming, even taking the initiative to expand agricultural lands. This trend is a testament to their resilience and potential, and it is our duty to support and encourage them in transforming agriculture into a viable and dignified livelihood”.
The story of Chandra and Tek Bahadur Gharti is not just about farming – it is about reclaiming dignity, fostering independence, and building a sustainable future. Their farm stands as a beacon of hope for a region seeking to balance tradition with innovation.
Through the combined efforts of strategies like KADS, initiatives like GRAPE, and the resilience of farmers, Karnali has the potential to become a hub for regenerative agriculture. As the Gharti brothers demonstrate, with the right support, the land can provide not just sustenance but also prosperity and pride.
The journey to transform Karnali is underway, and with inspiring stories like these, the future looks promising. Together, policymakers, institutions, and farmers can ensure that agriculture becomes a cornerstone of sustainable development in Nepal.
The Gharti brothers have not only revolutionised their farm but also ignited hope across Karnali. Their story is a testament to the transformative power of local commitment, innovative strategies like KADS, and the potential of agriculture to restore dignity and prosperity to communities.
As the Gharti brothers put it, “When we farm our own land, we work with pride and dignity. This is the life we always wanted.”
Every winter, the quality of air in Kathmandu city plummets as it is shrouded by smog and pollution particles emitted from a number of sources. The sources vary from transport, industry, and domestic fuel to forest fires, not to mention the pollutants brought over from distant sources by atmospheric circulation. Not just capital Kathmandu’s air pollution level but also of rest of Nepal’s – much like the case of its neighbouring countries – is a persistent problem and one that has been increasing in severity. A recent report estimates that in 2021, more than 48,000 deaths could have been caused by air pollution alone in the country.
In response to this severe issue, Nepal’s Department of Environment (DoEnv), under its Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoFE), and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) have joined forces to combat air pollution and promote sustainable environmental practices. On 6 November 2024, both institutions signed a letter of intent (LoI) and committed to more efforts in addressing air quality challenges in the country through a combination of scientific research, capacity building, and collaborative actions.
The DoEnv plays a crucial role in Nepal’s environmental management efforts. Tasked with enforcing the country’s Environment Protection Act (2019) and Environment Protection Regulation (2020), the department is responsible for improving air quality, enforcing environmental standards, promoting climate adaptation practices, and creating climate-resilient communities. With an aim to tackle air pollution in the country, it has also partnered with ICIMOD in setting up a national network of air quality monitoring stations, and a dashboard to track the state of air pollution in the country.
Reflecting on the partnership, DoEnv Director General Subedi said, “Environmental considerations must be central to development if we are to avoid long-term challenges. Despite limited resources and expertise, the Government of Nepal is prioritising air pollution mitigation. Through our collaboration with ICIMOD and its network, we hope to overcome these challenges and address the risks posed by polluted air and make a difference that transcends borders.”
The department has also continued a critical service by conducting and supporting the need for national-level air quality monitoring in the country. The results have been captured in national air quality reports (available for download here) that reveal a worrying trend wherein winter and early spring months are shown to have the most polluted days across Nepal.
While the purpose of the collaboration is to strengthen their long-standing partnership in air quality management, the DoEnv and ICIMOD will also engage in the following:
Reflecting on the shared goals of the two organisations, Dr. Gyamtsho, Director General of ICIMOD, said, “The Department of Environment is an invaluable partner for ICIMOD and we are eager to work together to address one of the most urgent planetary crises – air pollution. Polluted air impacts people’s health, well-being, and livelihoods. We are committed to supporting Nepal’s efforts to take the lead in finding effective, regionally impactful solutions.”
This partnership between ICIMOD and the DoEnv could be a pivotal step in Nepal’s journey towards clean air and a healthy environment. As a developing country that must make critical choices that influence its national development goals and the well-being of its citizens, this partnership will directly contribute to better climate action in Nepal. By combining scientific expertise and governmental policy, the collaboration aims to not only improve air quality in Nepal but also serve as a model for regional action against air pollution. Together, ICIMOD and the DoEnv have been displaying the requisite commitment to creating a sustainable and resilient future for Nepal and the greater HKH region.
ICIMOD’s commitment to reducing climate and environmental risks
As part of our strategy to reduce climate and environmental risks, ICIMOD collaborates with its Regional Member Countries on air quality management under its Stimulating Action for Clean Air programme. ICIMOD aims to comprehensively understand air quality issues in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region by generating scientific data, advancing knowledge, and fostering collaborations on clean air initiatives.
“Our village was hit by several landslides, leaving us without electricity for over 10 days.”
Lamin Maya Tamang , a resident of Bhagwate village
“Our water supply system, which ran on electricity, stopped working during these rains. We had to return to the old Bhagwate Spring, a source we hadn’t used for years. This forgotten spring became our lifeline in this difficult time,” says Lamin Maya Tamang, a resident of Bhagwate village in Namobuddha municipality, Kavrepalanchok dsitrict, central Nepal. Bhagwate was one of the areas hit hardest by the extreme rainfall events of September 2024.
From 26 to 28 September 2024, torrential rainfall triggered devastating floods and landslides across Nepal, resulting in widespread destruction. According to the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority (NDRRMA), the hardest-hit areas included Sindhuli, Kavrepalanchok , Sindhupalchok, and Dhading districts, as well as the Kathmandu Valley. Water levels in 23 rivers surged above the danger mark, and rainfall exceeded 200mm as recorded by 77 monitoring stations, leading to unprecedented loss of life, with over 250 deaths, 178 injured and 17 missing people, and damage to homes, water systems, roads, bridges, schools, and healthcare facilities. In response, the government declared 71 municipalities across 20 districts as disaster-affected zones.
The September disaster underscored the vital role of local springs as lifelines. In villages like Bhagwate and Bhugdeu in Kavrepalanchok district, residents turned to these almost-forgotten, but enduring water sources for survival when their modern water supply systems failed.
Located in Namobuddha municipality’s ward 2, Bhagwate Spring once served around 20–25 households before it dried up in 2014 due to drought. With the drying up of the spring, residents began digging wells or relying on other nearby seasonal springs. In 2019, the municipality dug a borewell to supply water to 100 households.
The September 2024 disaster disrupted the centralised system, leaving the Bhagwate villagers without water for two weeks. In this crisis, the Bhagwate Spring, revived in 2021 through a collaborative venture between the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and local authorities, became a crucial water source yet again. With a maximum water flow of 1.5 litres per minute as of October 2024, the spring has regained its status as a reliable water source, and locals are now considering it for agriculture and household needs.
A similar story unfolded in Bhugdeu village, Bethanchowk rural municipality, where approximately 120 households once relied on two local springs, Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero. This changed when a larger water supply project tapped a distant spring, Darke Kholsa, and distributed its water through communal taps across the village. Over time, as each household got a private tap connected to the Bhugdeu river – courtesy of the ‘Ek Ghar Ek Dhara’ scheme – these communal taps and local springs were gradually abandoned.
However, after the September 2024 disaster, when the main supply from the Bhugdeu River was disrupted, the water from Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero, which had only served four households and four cattle sheds after the Ek Ghar Ek Dhara came into effect, became the only water sources for 120 households all over again.
“We had to dig out and clean the buried springs we had long forgotten about.”
Sudarshan Thapa, a resident of Bhugdeu village
The springs, once abandoned, became their lifeline, providing essential water during and after the crisis. Reflecting on this, Sudarshan Thapa, a Bhugdeu villager, says, “This taught us that local springs are vital. We need to preserve them not just for emergencies, but also for long-term water security.”
The villagers got together to clean and conserve Mathillo Padhero and Tallo Padhero. They also revived other springs, such as Darke Kuwa, which had been buried by a landslide two decades ago but is now serving eight households. Similarly, Darke Dhara, previously swept away by floods, was restored following the September calamity and is now providing drinking water to 14 households.
These two stories from Namobuddha municipality and Bethanchowk rural municipality offer a glimpse into a broader issue across the hill and mountain settlements of Nepal during disasters. Large-scale water systems – such as river-lift schemes, deep boreholes, and one-tap-per-household initiatives – have often led communities to neglect local springs that could have been conserved and protected with minimal efforts. Yet, when centralised water infrastructure fails, communities return to these local and small sources for drinking water, sanitation, and even agricultural uses. The recent disaster has underscored the vital role of local springs, reminding communities of the urgent need to safeguard these resources to ensure reliable and sustainable access to water in times of crisis.
A recent study in Kavrepalanchok district points to an urgent need for action to preserve vital spring sources. Conducted through a citizen science initiative and supported by ICIMOD’s Himalayan Resilience Enabling Action Programme (HI-REAP), the study involved training community members to map springs and document their status across seven municipalities in the district. The alarming results indicate that approximately one-quarter of the springs in the region have dried up and 54 percent of the remaining active springs have been showing decreased flow over the past decade. The causes are both natural and man-made, with earthquakes identified as a primary disruptor. Earthquakes, by altering underground water channels, have significantly contributed to the drying up of springs. Prolonged droughts, too, have taken a toll, impacting flow and resilience.
Apart from natural forces, human activities such as infrastructure development, urbanisation, and road construction have further stressed these water sources. Alarmingly, many springs are not accounted for in planning processes, resulting in their decline. Other contributing factors include neglectful maintenance and land-use changes such as through deforestation. Each of these adds pressure on these critical resources, which are too often ignored until emergencies arise.
Springs are vital sources of drinking water for over 10 million people living in the mountainous areas of Nepal. They must be preserved and managed proactively to sustain Nepal’s water security. Protecting these sources is not only about preserving tradition – it is about ensuring reliable, resilient access to water in the face of growing environmental challenges such as the recent extreme event. As efforts continue in Kavrepalanchok to restore the modern water supply infrastructure after the disaster of September, it is essential to remember the value of springs, those hardy natural sources that remain steady when all else fails.
Hundreds of millions of people across the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) and Himalayan Foothills (HFH) are still breathing hazardous air today, as the Air Quality Index in cities in Pakistan crossed 1,000+ and in Delhi hit 450+, closing schools and causing disruption to flights.
Air pollution is sometimes called “the invisible killer” because the fine particle contaminants suspended in the air we so often breathe in this region are usually so hard to see.
Last weekend, however, that changed, when NASA released images that showed the smog engulfing South Asia has grown so big that you can see it from space.
Sightseers’ photographs from one of the world’s Seven Wonders, the Taj Mahal, meanwhile provided a chilling demonstration, at ground level, of the extent to which visibility had fallen due to the smog.
Particulate matter, visible or not, is devastating to human health: entering not just our lungs, but also our bloodstreams, to impact every organ in the human body.
Researchers who gathered earlier this year at ICIMOD’s headquarters in Kathmandu, a city that sometimes vies with Delhi, Lahore and Dhaka for the title of world’s most polluted city, stressed how hazardous pollution is not only to respiration, but also to heart and brain function, and cognitive development.
It also ups the risks of chronic conditions, cancer, and strokes, and medics call it the region’s top public health risk. Worldwide it caused 8.1 million deaths in 2021, states the State of Global Air Report.
The impacts on children are particularly grave: among children under five, exposure to air pollution is linked to the death of more than 700,000 children.
As well as premature birth, low birth weight, asthma and lung diseases, pollution can result in long-term developmental issues that can ricochet down a child’s entire life course in terms of educational attainment.
While air pollution does not discriminate, high population sizes and high levels of poverty hugely compound the levels of exposure and risks faced by people in South Asia, researchers say.
The poorest populations often live or work in closest proximity to pollution sources.
They also lack the resources to adopt coping mechanisms, such as buying household air purifiers, or, more drastically, leaving high-pollution zones during spikes, or to switch to lower emissions heating and cooking sources.
Earlier this year, ICIMOD convened global experts to increase understanding of and awareness about the impacts of the region's air emergency on poverty and health, and to increase the speed and scale of investment in solutions.
As pollution remains at severe levels, we are releasing a series of films recorded at that event, which feature
“Air pollution accounted for 8.1 million deaths globally in 2021,” says our partner in this work, US research group, Health Effects Institute. “[And] many more millions of people are living with debilitating chronic diseases, putting tremendous strains on health care systems, economies, and societies.”
"The smog we can see from space right now is destroying our lungs, our hearts, our brains, it is hammering our hospitals, and our economies and accelerating the loss of our frozen water stores," Pema Gyamtsho, Director General of ICIMOD, who earlier this year convened a major science-policy dialogue on air pollution with key regional stakeholders in Thimphu, Bhutan. "We need an air pollution revolution in our region, and ICIMOD is standing by to support diverse stakeholders – from science to policy to industry – to bring about urgently needed change."
In the last week of September 2024, Kathmandu and other parts of Nepal experienced heavy flooding, claiming more than 200 lives with many still missing. Streets and settlements that once buzzed with life were swallowed by water, sweeping away homes, vehicles, and any sense of safety. "No one saw this coming in Kathmandu," many of us said, but perhaps we should have. While the intensity of the flood was unexpected, the devastation felt tragically inevitable due to unplanned settlements in or near floodplains. These floods serve as a grim reminder of the growing vulnerability posed by both climate change and non-climatic factors that increase the risks and frequency of such unprecedented disasters.
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region is particularly vulnerable, grappling with the mounting challenges of climate change and increasing natural hazards and environmental degradation, threatening the lives and livelihoods of more than one billion people. In addition to these environmental stresses, the region is undergoing rapid socioeconomic shifts marked by increased migration, urbanisation, conflicts, persistent inequalities, and technological development such as artificial intelligence (AI). Along with these converging trends and critical shifts, the world is already experiencing a triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, with the HKH at the frontline of this crisis. This amplifies uncertainties across multiple systems, underscoring the urgent need for foresight.
Many of us may wish we possess ‘the ability to predict what will happen or be needed in the future’. Beyond this everyday use of the word, ‘foresight’ is a term used in social science, international development and policymaking which refers to the disciplined analysis of alternative futures, with the aim of making better-informed decisions, having considered future eventualities, scenarios and outcomes. In times marked by uncertainty and looming threats, foresight emerges as an essential tool to anticipate potential risks such as the unforeseen flood in Kathmandu, and delve deeper into signs of approaching change. It gives insight into potential future scenarios that can drastically affect lives and livelihoods. Foresight helps “strengthen resilience against the unexpected” by translating future uncertainty into present actionable decisions. It also provides a framework for governments, public organisations, and the private sector to identify pathways to mitigate future risks. UNDP has adopted foresight approaches for the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and it is now increasingly common for development institutions to develop strategies in the face of an uncertain future.
To kickstart future thinking and introduce a foresight mindset in the HKH region, ICIMOD organised a consultative workshop in September 2023. The workshop highlighted the pressing need to understand foresight concepts and strengthen the capacity to use various foresight tools effectively, especially among government agencies, non-governmental organisations, academic and research organisations, and development practitioners.
ICIMOD has adopted the participatory foresight methodology specifically for the HKH region adapted from the foresight framework developed by Foresight4Food (Figure 1). The foresight framework employs futures thinking and scenario analysis engaging a wide range of stakeholders with scientific evidence and application of several participatory tools such as causal loop diagrams (CLDs) – which show how different variables and factors in a system are causally interrelated, rich pictures – which summarise a situation through drawings, impact-uncertainty matrix to explore and calculate critical uncertainties, and social, technological, economic, environmental, political, legal and ethical (STEEPLE) analysis. The foresight approach employs systems thinking, a holistic approach to understanding the complexities and dynamics of various systems. This helps stakeholders envision potential future risks and vulnerabilities while also recognising opportunities for strategic future planning and decision-making.
Building on this momentum, ICIMOD held a six-day training workshop in collaboration with Foresight4Food in August 2024 in Dhulikhel, Nepal. The event brought together 51 participants representing over 30 organisations from six countries in the region – Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan – and from the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Kingdom. The training was targeted towards government agencies, non-governmental organisations, academic and research organisations, and development practitioners who can benefit from effectively applying foresight tools in their line of work.
During the six-day training, participants actively engaged in hands-on exercises organised into four thematic groups: migration, climate change adaptation, pastoralism, and disaster risk reduction (DRR). The workshop followed the foresight framework, structured into four key phases, where participants engaged in a variety of participatory tools (Figure 1). The application of tools such as the CLDs, STEEPLE analysis and impact uncertainty matrix showed the participants how to unravel the complexities and gain a better understanding of a system’s components, interconnections, patterns and behaviour over time.
Specific foresight tools further encouraged participants to think beyond their existing knowledge; these included: rich pictures, visioning – the process of developing a ‘vision’ or aspirational goal, four scenarios – developing narratives of possible futures, and back-casting – visioning a future situation and then working back to identify the steps needed to get there. These sessions sparked creativity, enthusiasm, and exchange of knowledge, ideas and insights. They were insightful in understanding and mapping complexities and identifying transformational pathways of change, and also highly enjoyable, as evidenced by the creative collaboration of the interdisciplinary groups.
As we engaged in scenario-building exercises, it was interesting to note that one scenario could lead to multiple implications that may be favourable to one group but not to another. The complexity and interplay of varying interests and conflicting ideas were highlighted through role-playing activities. While role plays sparked creativity, fun, and laughter, they also illustrated the realities of competing interests and the plural outcomes for different stakeholders, as no matter what the future holds, there will always be winners and losers. This demonstrates how crucial it is to integrate gender and social inclusion into the foresight process, to add valuable perspectives, in order to help ensure that diverse implications of scenarios are considered, and that potential vulnerabilities and inequalities are addressed while developing future scenarios.
At the outset of the training, the participants were eager to tackle one pivotal question: how can foresight tools be effectively applied in their work? After successful completion of the training, they were better equipped to use foresight tools to guide decision-making and policy. They identified ways to weave foresight into their work and also made commitments. One of the significant outcomes of the training workshop is the application of foresight methods in three areas: migration, climate change adaptation, and rangeland management in the region. These foresight activities will span across diverse landscapes of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. By adopting a foresight approach, civil society organisations and policymakers can support anticipating the challenges ahead, ensuring that development strategies are resilient and sustainable. Bringing a futures lens into their respective lines of work can be a positive way to start a new journey. As we advance, the foresight approaches and tools that we trained the participants in and will be using in different lines of work will also help to further develop a robust framework that not only helps to anticipate the future but actively helps to shape it, ensuring that the region is resilient amidst the uncertainties of tomorrow.
“My husband was killed, and you are enjoying a ride!” cried a grief-stricken woman, her voice full of resentment. It was a hazy afternoon as we drove along the embankment of the Mechi River in Bahundangi, eastern Nepal. With us was Shankar Luitel, a dedicated conservationist and citizen scientist renowned for his work on elephants, who advised her to contact the local authorities as we passed. Later, we asked him about the incident. With a heavy heart, he explained that two years before, the woman’s husband had been killed by an elephant. Just 10 kilometres away, across the border in Naxalbari, West Bengal, India, a 15-year-old boy weeps inconsolably, recounting the day his father succumbed to fatal injuries from an elephant attack. The boy was then forced to leave school to shoulder the burden of supporting his family. In Bhutan’s Samtse district, the tragedy repeats as elephants frequently visit landfill sites by the highways, placing schoolchildren in constant danger. These cases might have gone unheard and unknown to many but they echo countless stories of loss and suffering in the lowlands of the Kangchenjunga Landscape, where human-elephant conflict has torn apart families, leaving behind widows and orphans.
The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas, shared by Bhutan, India, and Nepal, is a biodiversity hotspot that faces increasing threats from human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Among these conflicts, human-elephant conflict (HEC) stands out as a significant concern, particularly as endangered Asiatic elephants migrate through this region. Elephas maximus indica is the largest living land mammal in the Asian mainland; females can reach up to 240 cm in height and weigh up to 3,500 kg, while males have a maximum height of 300 cm and can weigh up to 6000 kg. Despite their large size, elephants are known as gentle giants – nomadic herbivores who range across large distances in search of food and water, keeping out of the midday sun under the shade of vegetation, bathing in water or covering themselves with mud or soil. Elephants are considered intelligent, emotional creatures, and have been known to exhibit behaviours linked to grief, learning, compassion and memory. They live in matriarchal societies made up of females and offspring; males usually live in smaller groups or alone.
However, habitat loss, fragmentation, and human encroachment into wildlife territories have escalated encounters between humans and elephants – usually lone male elephants – leading to fatalities and injuries on both sides, and economic losses. As in other parts of Asia, elephants also hold profound cultural significance in the KL – one example is the elephant-headed Lord Ganesha, the widely revered Hindu god known as the ‘remover of obstacles’ and bringer of good luck. As a result, tolerance to elephants in general is high. It is important to build on this to address drivers of conflict and promote human-elephant coexistence.
Over the years, the expansion of human populations into natural habitats has worsened HEC. Human activities have degraded elephant habitats, leaving elephants with limited access to food and water. As a result, they increasingly wander into human settlements in search of sustenance, often with devastating consequences. Elephants raid crops, destroy homes, and sometimes cause human casualties. In response, communities defend themselves using various means, some of which can be fatal to elephants. This cycle of violence only perpetuates the conflict, harming both humans and elephants.
One of the key factors exacerbating this conflict is habitat loss. Elephants are large herbivores that require extensive areas of land to meet their dietary needs. With shrinking forests and dwindling food sources, elephants are forced to forage in human-dominated landscapes, such as agricultural fields and villages. This not only leads to significant economic losses for farmers but also puts elephants at risk of retaliatory attacks. The growth of tea plantations and the expansion of agriculture have disrupted the natural movement and feeding patterns of elephants. Traditional migratory routes have been blocked or fragmented, further compounding the problem. The consequences of these encounters are not just physical; they leave lasting emotional scars on affected communities. Families, particularly those who lose loved ones or suffer significant property damage, are often left with deep-seated fear and resentment towards elephants, creating a hostile environment for conservation efforts.
As elephants increasingly frequent human settlements, they have also altered their feeding habits. These animals, known for their remarkable intelligence and highly developed sense of smell, are drawn to human foods such as cereal flour, salt, homemade brews, and livestock feed. This shift in their diet is driven by the scarcity of natural food sources in their natural habitat and their ability to detect food from great distances. When elephants invade human settlements in search of these foods, the results are often disastrous, and the social consequences are profound. In many cases, the loss of a family member, particularly a male head of household, can force children to abandon their education to support the family.
The economic and emotional toll of these conflicts extends beyond the immediate physical damage, affecting the social fabric of entire communities. Moreover, the economic costs of HEC are significant. The expenses associated with protecting crops, combined with the losses incurred due to wildlife damage, have driven some farmers to abandon their land. In the north of West Bengal, eastern India, many farmers are leaving their fields fallow, which threatens local food security and economic stability. Traditional deterrent methods, such as fences, firecrackers, and sirens, have proven ineffective with time, as elephants quickly learn to bypass or dismantle these barriers. In some tragic cases, the use of firecrackers has even led to fatal accidents for both humans and elephants.
In addition to habitat loss, poor waste management is also exacerbating HEC. Improperly disposed food waste attracts elephants, increasing the likelihood of encounters. In Bhutan’s Samtse district, bordering the Indian state of West Bengal, landfill sites beside the highways attract elephants, endangering residents, including schoolchildren. Communities need improved waste disposal practices, such as secure landfill sites and waste incineration, alongside education programmes on responsible waste management. By reducing food attractants, the risk of human-elephant encounters can be minimised, while reducing the risk of harm to elephants from consuming plastics and other toxic materials that are dumped in these sites.
One of the primary challenges in managing HEC is the scarcity of human resources and equipment. In many affected areas, there are insufficient numbers of wildlife rangers and forest guards to respond to potential conflict situations promptly. Additionally, inadequate equipment and early warning systems hinder the ability to alert communities to the presence of elephants. Another issue is the inefficiency of compensation mechanisms for victims of HEC. Lengthy procedures and inadequate monetary compensation discourage people from seeking compensation, leading to distrust and antipathy towards government agencies. This also erodes community's willingness to participate in conservation efforts, further aggravating the conflict.
Pathways to coexistence: mitigation strategies
Despite the challenges, several strategies offer hope for advancing coexistence between humans and elephants. One of the most promising approaches is habitat restoration. Healthy ecosystems provide elephants with the food and water they need, reducing their need to venture into human settlements. Restoring degraded habitats and creating wildlife corridors can enable elephants to move between fragmented habitats without encountering human populations.
Empowering local communities and wildlife authorities is another critical step in managing HEC. Education and awareness programmes, coupled with training in wildlife management, can equip communities with the knowledge and skills needed to mitigate conflict. Establishing Rapid Response Teams (RRT) and equipping and training them to handle emergencies can also reduce the likelihood of fatal or dangerous encounters. Livelihood diversification offers a sustainable solution to HEC. By encouraging farmers to cultivate crops that are less palatable to elephants, communities can create buffer zones around more palatable crops, thereby reducing the risk of crop raids by the pachyderms. Governments can further support these efforts by offering financial incentives, such as subsidies or tax breaks, to encourage farmers to adopt sustainable agricultural practices.
Finally, improving compensation and insurance systems is essential for rebuilding trust between affected communities and government agencies. Transparent, efficient, and equitable compensation processes can ensure that victims of HEC receive timely and adequate support, which can reduce the likelihood of retaliatory killings of elephants and foster greater tolerance for wildlife.
In the eastern Himalayas, elephants are transboundary animals and are unstoppable when they migrate across international borders in search of food and water. So, the key to preventing and managing HEC in the region is transboundary cooperation. It is crucial that Bhutan, India, and Nepal collaborate on research, share information about elephant movement, form transboundary HEC prevention and mitigation teams, and develop joint management strategies to manage human-elephant interactions and conflict. It is only through cross-border cooperation that governments, conservation organisations, and local communities can pool resources and knowledge to address the complex challenges posed by HEC.
ICIMOD recognises transboundary cooperation as the key to finding long-lasting solutions to HEC. It is working to bring the three nations together to prioritise HWC as a central issue for regional development, and has launched a dedicated initiative to address this transboundary concern.
Transboundary cooperation can also help restore connectivity between fragmented habitats along the borders, helping elephants use and migrate safely between habitats without encountering human settlements and other developments. These efforts may be the last glimmer of hope to lessen the sorrows of widows in settlements like Bahundangi, restore children’s right to education in Naxalbari, and ease the schoolchildren’s persistent fear of elephant encounters in Samtse.
(Kesang Wangchuk is a biodiversity specialist at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.)
The Hindu Kush Himalaya is the most populated mountain region in the world with 270 million people. Around one-third of the population is facing food insecurity, and half of them are suffering from malnutrition with more severe impacts on children and women. Ecosystem services from the HKH region, particularly freshwater services, directly and indirectly impact 2.1 billion people (nearly one-fourth of the world population) living in upstream and downstream areas of river basins – so what happens in the mountains impacts people living beyond the mountain region.
The region hosts all or parts of four global biodiversity hotspots – the Himalaya, the Indo-Burma, the Mountains of Central Asia, and the Mountains of Southwest China – supporting diverse flora and fauna. People in the HKH region are experiencing both climate change and biodiversity losses. These drivers of change are interwoven and have significant impact on the lives and livelihoods of mountain people as well as their capacity to respond or adapt to these changes. The major livelihoods of mountain communities are agriculture, livestock, tourism, and the collection and trading of medicinal and aromatic plants. These livelihoods are significantly and adversely impacted by climate change and biodiversity losses. Major adverse impacts include crop loss and failure, fodder shortage, livestock deaths, decrease in the availability of medicinal and aromatic plants, and degradation of aesthetic experiences (which impact mood and wellbeing). In many areas, communities have abandoned agriculture and pastoralism in response to climate change impacts. These impacts have further exacerbated the socioeconomic vulnerability of mountain communities, including food and nutrition insecurity. They have also resulted in the displacement of populations from high-risk areas and have exacerbated the existing trends of labour out-migration from the region, for livelihoods and other social, economic and political drivers. Adaptation assessments reports have consistently indicated that adaptation actions are happening at an incremental pace, are mostly autonomous, and are at individual and community scales.
Mountain communities in the HKH region are dependent on meltwater from snow and glaciers, in addition to rain, to meet their water needs. Water supply systems in downstream regions, including in densely populated urban settlements, are dependent on meltwater for domestic and commercial purposes. Along with growing demand and insufficient infrastructure, climate change is likely to further exacerbate water shortages in the region. Climate change-related hazards in the region have caused significant loss of lives, and loss and damage of property, infrastructure, and tangible and intangible cultural heritage. These disasters have led to a loss of traditional knowledge, increased social and economic burdens, and caused psychological stress and displacement. Climate-related hazards are projected to increase in the HKH region in the future, adding investment burdens with long-term implications for national and regional economies.
In order to adapt to the impacts of climate change, most countries in the region have developed National Adaptation Plans and Strategies and are now gearing up to implement them. ‘UAE-Belem work programme’ convened by UNFCCC is working on refining and developing indicators for measuring progress towards the Global Goal on adaptation in eight domains – water, food, health, ecosystems, infrastructure and human settlements, poverty and livelihoods, cultural heritage, and policy cycle. Parties, intergovernmental organisations, UN agencies and INGOs have submitted more than 5000 indicators; COP29 is a key event to further advance this work.
This is a pivotal moment for mountain countries and communities to ensure that the eight domains sufficiently cover aspects important to mountain areas. Common indicators for all types of geographies may not capture the sensitivity of mountain systems to climate change and may not capture the effectiveness of adaptation actions. For instance, we must ensure that the water domain covers springs; the food domain must cover adaptation on agriculture and food supply chains, and the revival of abandoned land; ecosystems must cover rangelands; human settlements must cover vernacular architecture, etc. Furthermore, it is critical to ensure that the indicators reflect and are relevant to the specific context of mountains to capture the progress made in adaptation (or lack of), and enable credible flows of finance to this region.
Background of UAE-Belem Work Programme (source: Global goal on adaptation | UNFCCC)
The Paris Agreement of 2015 established the global goal on adaptation of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the temperature goal referred to in its Article 2.
At CMA 3 in 2021, Parties established the Glasgow-Sharm el Sheikh work programme on the global goal on adaptation. Upon completion of the work programme in 2023, CMA 5 adopted the UAE Framework on Global Climate Resilience, and also launched a two-year UAE–Belém work programme on indicators.
At CMA 5, Parties adopted the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, as part of the UAE Consensus. The framework includes a range of thematic and dimensional targets for climate adaptation and resilience.
CMA 5 also established a two-year UAE – Belém work programme, on the development of indicators for measuring progress achieved towards the targets outlined in the framework, and Parties provided guidance on the structure and modalities of the work programme at SB 60.
SB 60 requested their Chairs to convene technical experts to assist in the technical work under the United Arab Emirates–Belém work programme.
In the pristine highlands of Bhutan, many local communities engage in the traditional practice of yak herding, which plays a crucial role in Bhutan’s agricultural landscape. This is particularly the case in 11 highland districts, where yak herding engages over 1,100 households and contributes approximately 4% to the nation’s livestock production. Yaks – a species of long-haired domesticated cattle found throughout the Himalayas – primarily graze in rangelands, locally known as Tsamdros, which encompass permanent grasslands and forested areas.
The governance of Tsamdros has undergone significant transformation over the years. Initially, individual ownership was established via royal edicts (Kashos). The enactment of the Thrimzhung Chenmo (Supreme Law Code) in 1953 conferred full ownership rights to individuals and institutions. However, the 2007 Land Act nationalised rangelands, designating them as state property, thereby limiting herders to grazing rights. In 2017, The National Land Commission Secretariat aimed to safeguard the grazing rights of highlanders by redistributing land according to four guiding principles:
This process involved rescinding Tsamdro rights from non-domicile elites and religious institutions, with compensation provided to affected titleholders. This approach sought to balance environmental conservation with the livelihoods of highlanders. In 2017, highland communities petitioned His Majesty the King to reaffirm their Tsamdro rights. Following His Majesty’s endorsement, the National Land Commission of Bhutan developed the Tsamdro Implementation Framework, emphasising community engagement and incorporating local expertise to effectively address the needs of highlanders.
As of now, approximately 380,000 acres of Tsamdros have been surveyed and mapped using the Tsamdro App, co-developed and implemented with the highlanders. Rangelands are now officially recognised in Bhutan’s National Land Use Zoning, and relevant stakeholders are formulating management guidelines.
Key to this process are rangeland restoration efforts, including the control of weeds and invasive species through prescribed burning, water management and reseeding initiatives, all aimed at enhancing grassland productivity for both yaks and wild herbivores. These efforts are designed to ensure sustainable yak production while preserving cultural heritage and the environmental integrity of high-altitude rangelands.
The task of restoration is not an easy one and cannot be managed by a single agency. The National Land Commission Secretariat is encouraged by the combined efforts of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), along with the Department of Forest and Park Services, the Department of Livestock, National Biodiversity Centre, National Plant Protection Centre, and Menjong Sorig Pharmaceuticals Corporation – which specialises in manufacturing medicines using medicinal plants and herbs – in raising awareness about rangeland degradation and trialling various treatments to restore the health and productivity of our Tsamdros.
By conducting these trials with herders, the rangeland restoration work is also building the capacity of herders and incorporating traditional knowledge and practices, all of which align with the land management responsibilities emphasised in the Implementation Framework.
Geley Norbu, Director General, National Land Commission Secretariat (NLCS), Thimphu, Bhutan
Karma Choden Tshering, Senior Land Registrar, NLCS, Bhutan
Chimi Dem, Deputy Chief Survey Engineer, NLCS, Bhutan
Rinzin Dorji, National Cadastral Resurvey Program, NLCS, Bhutan
Last month saw for the first time the Arctic Circle knit together Earth’s three polar regions: the Arctic, the Antarctic and the Himalayas with its new dedicated Polar Dialogue initiative, organized and hosted during its annual Assembly.
Chair of the Dialogue, H.E. Katrín Jakobsdóttir, Prime Minister of Iceland 2017-2024; described “the challenges regarding the cryosphere [as] urgent," and co-chair Antje Boetius, Director, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Germany described the initiative as a “platform [for stakeholders to] keep that level of urgency but build a sphere of trust.”
ICIMOD Director General Pema Gyamtsho joined the Dialogue and sits on the platform’s Advisory Committee of global experts in polar and high-altitude research.
At the session he emphasized common issues shared by polar and mountain zones—from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF), erratic weather patterns, to flash floods and thawing permafrost—and called for urgent action and investment in research, mitigation, adaptation; and unprecedented cooperation and collaboration to address escalating risks and build resilience for vulnerable regions.
Boetius said: “Every year we have new data that we need to take into consideration. Humanity as a whole bears a huge commitment with the cryosphere. It's not just the physical property of ice but the loss of cultural diversity."
While the Arctic and Antarctic have long been recognized as critical polar regions, the HKH, which spans eight countries and is home to the world's highest peaks, including Mount Everest, deserves equal recognition due to its vital role as a water tower for nearly 2 billion people and its immense contribution to global climate regulation.
The Polar Dialogue serves as a unique platform to share insights, data, and research on the impacts of climate change in both polar and mountain regions, fostering collaboration across continents.
The Arctic Circle Assembly is the world’s largest annual gathering dedicated to Arctic and global issues held in Reykjavík, Iceland. Drawing over 2000 participants, it convenes heads of state, policymakers, scientists, environmentalists, indigenous leaders, business executives, and civil society members to discuss and address the evolving challenges and opportunities within the Arctic region.
The Arctic Circle Assembly is a nonprofit and nonpartisan organisation, chaired by Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, the former President of Iceland. Its significance lies in its ability to foster dialogue and action on the most pressing issues of our time, particularly in the context of the Arctic's role in the global climate system.
https://www.arcticcircle.org/journal/the-polar-dialogue
https://www.ruv.is/frettir/innlent/2024-09-23-katrin-leidir-umraedur-a-arctic-circle-422970
As the world gathers for the Conference of Parties (COP)16, discussions under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in Cali, Colombia and later in Baku, Azerbaijan for COP29, the global conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the spotlight is firmly on solutions that tackle biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem degradation.
As the COP discussions progress, it’s an opportune moment to highlight how the work we are doing at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) with our partners in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) aligns with the global agenda. Achieving goals on biodiversity, climate, and sustainable development requires ongoing investment, strong partnerships, and large-scale, tangible actions – particularly in the HKH region, where ecosystems support 1.2 billion people across the mountains and downstream river basins.
Our rangelands, wetlands, forests, and ecosystems are vital both for local livelihoods and for global environmental health. They provide essential services like carbon sequestration, water and air regulation, hazard mitigation, habitat protection, and boosting ecosystem productivity. ICIMOD’s work on ecosystems and landscape restoration is dedicated to scaling Nature-based Solutions (NbS) – which include actions to protect, sustainably manage, or restore natural ecosystems that address environmental, social, economic, and gender-related challenges while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. In particular, our work addresses societal challenges around water insecurity and ecosystem degradation – that has deeper implications on food and livelihoods security, including biodiversity conservation. Springshed management and rangelands restoration for multiple benefits are foundational NbS, and together with forest landscape restoration, incentives for biodiversity, and addressing issues on human-wildlife coexistence – we are committing to safeguarding critical mountain ecosystems with the aim of generating multiple benefits – both for people and the environment.
Rangelands and wetlands cover 60% of HKH landmasses. They comprise grasslands, shrublands, meadows, steppes, prairies, marshes, and peatlands which serve as habitats for numerous plant and animal species – especially medicinal plants and key mammal species. These ecosystems provide critical services around water regulation and carbon sequestration, and have deep cultural significance linked to the lives and traditions of pastoralist and herder communities.
Our rangeland intervention adopts the NbS design with the aim of generating climate, biodiversity, and livelihoods co-benefits from rangeland restoration. We promote sustainable grazing practices, working together with herders and pastoralist communities. By collaborating with government agencies, we aim to strengthen policy to enable inclusive and sustainable management of rangeland resources. By working with local governments, herders, and NGOs across several countries, we are co-designing actions to protect rangeland biodiversity, reduce degradation, and increase ecosystem services. Such collaborative research and practice focused on the transformation of rangelands and pastoralism align directly with global commitments to restore degraded landscapes and combat desertification, as emphasised in the 2016 Cancun Statement of the CBD and UNCCD’s the Global Land Outlook Thematic Report on Rangelands.
ICIMOD’s work on wetland conservation and management, particularly in high-altitude wetlands, has implications for global carbon management efforts – supporting both mitigation and adaptation efforts in line with UNFCCC objectives on wise use and restoration of wetlands and peatlands for mitigating climate change.
One of the key NbS that ICIMOD has been championing is springshed management. Springs serve as a lifeline for millions of people across the HKH region, providing essential water resources for drinking, agriculture, and sanitation. ICIMOD’s springshed management emphasises community-led spring mapping, sustainable land-water management practices and restoring vegetation cover around spring catchment areas, ensuring equitable access to reliable and sustainable water sources. Aligned to global efforts under CBD, UNFCCC, and UNCCD conventions, springshed management not only enhances water availability but also strengthens climate resilience in the mountain regions.
Similarly, ICIMOD’s forest landscape restoration (FLR) efforts contribute to the global agenda of restoring degraded ecosystems. By promoting afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, we are helping to restore the ecological integrity of forest landscapes, increase carbon sequestration, and enhance biodiversity. Our work in this area is particularly relevant to the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, which calls for concerted global efforts to restore degraded forests by 2030. We are working with government agencies to provide the science-led evidence around forest gain and carbon emission reduction, including the economics of forest landscape restoration.
The HKH region is home to rich biodiversity, including iconic species such as snow leopards, red pandas, wild yaks, and elephants. When human populations exist together in the same habitat, conflicts often arise. For the HKH, such conflicts are becoming more frequent and severe, threatening wildlife populations and undermining local livelihoods and human wellbeing.
ICIMOD’s work on mitigating human-wildlife conflicts focuses on solutions that foster coexistence between communities and wildlife. By implementing community-based monitoring and awareness, local warning systems, livelihood diversification strategies, and transboundary cooperation, we are helping to reduce the negative impacts of wildlife and local communities existing side by side. Our efforts emphasise the role of traditional knowledge, local stewardship and capacity to combat conflicts. This aligns well with Target 4 of the Global Biodiversity Framework to promote human-wildlife co-existence.
Incentives play a critical role in motivating conservation actions and sustaining biodiversity. ICIMOD’s work on developing innovative incentive measures for biodiversity and sustainable landscapes is designed to bridge the gap between conservation and development, providing direct contribution to Target 11 of the CBD, and to the Article 6.4 mechanism of the Paris Agreement under UNFCCC. We are engaging with private sectors and banking and financial institutions to innovate blended financing as a collective effort to reinforce sustainable development.
Our work on greener incentives highlights the importance of aligning incentive measures with government policies and private-sector initiatives. By fostering partnerships with governments, NGOs, and private-sector actors, we are ensuring that environmentally positive actions, climate adaptation actions and NbS efforts are financially sustainable and scalable. These incentives are particularly important in the context of the HKH region, where environmental economics have huge potential.
ICIMOD’s venture on Natural Capital Accounting (NCA) with the Royal Government of Bhutan is bringing to light the value of natural capital stocks and flows, and their contributions to the economy. By quantifying the economic benefits of biodiversity and ecosystem services, NCA is guiding policymakers and stakeholders to make informed decisions about conservation investments. Our work in Bhutan, for example, has demonstrated how NCA can be used to support the management of Protected Areas (PAs) – ensuring that their contributions to national development goals are adequately accounted. We are supporting the Department of Forests and Park Services in Bhutan to develop guidelines for NCA for PAs in alignment with the global SEEA-EA framework.
Additionally, ICIMOD is working to identify and promote Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs) in the HKH region. OECMs are areas that deliver biodiversity conservation outcomes without being formally designated as PAs. These areas are often managed by Indigenous people and local communities – which gives us ample opportunities to work with them and acknowledge their contributions. By recognising and supporting these areas, we are contributing to the CBD’s global target of conserving biodiversity across different types of landscapes – especially towards achieving CBD’s Target 3, which emphasises the need to conserve at least 30% of the planet’s land and oceans by 2030.
As the challenges of biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem degradation continue to mount globally and in the HKH, the work done by ICIMOD and its partners in the HKH region offers a model for integrated, landscape-level NbS that are relevant across other mountain regions across the globe.
Sustaining these efforts at scale will require continued collaboration, dedicated investments, capacity, and political will. It is crucial that governments, local communities, and the private sector work together to scale up successful initiatives and ensure that the HKH region’s ecosystems remain resilient in the face of growing environmental and climate challenges. We call for stronger regional cooperation among ICIMOD’s eight member countries. Our collective voice and united efforts for the HKH region will make a decisive contribution to global biodiversity, climate, and sustainable development goals.
Moving forward, we need to prioritise science and research actions, especially long-term monitoring of ecosystem health, enhancing the use of technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS), including data analytics based on artificial intelligence (AI) to inform conservation and management decisions. Innovating incentive mechanisms to scale NbS – especially policy and regulatory incentives – are designed to encourage investments from private sectors. A regional landscape restoration programme targeted to degraded ecosystems of HKH, facilitated through regional cooperation, regional data and information systems, and blended financing can further enhance our commitments to global biodiversity, climate, and sustainable goals.
The Hailuogou Glacier is located in Luding County of China’s Sichuan Province. The Hailuogou Glacier Forest Park, the only glacier-forest park in China, is one of the most important tourist attractions in the country, rated as a 5A-level tourist destination with excellent access, accommodations, attractions, activities and amenities (AAAAA). The glacier covers almost 25 square kilometres from 2900 up to 7556 metres above sea level. It is one of the few glaciers at low altitude that are relatively easily accessible. The debris-covered glacier serves as a training site for field-based glacier monitoring, largely due to the relatively ease of access.
In April 2024, I was fortunate to join the COP29 Youth Glacier and Climate Change Scientific Exploration Campaign at Hailuogou, where I spent four days alongside fellow early-career researchers from across China. We were guided by some of the country’s leading cryosphere experts, who shared insights into glacier monitoring, the effects of climate change, and the use of advanced technologies in glacier research, such as drone survey, Automatic Weather Station (AWS), and ice core drilling. This expedition provided great opportunities for me not only to learn but also to share information about cryosphere monitoring in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, carried out by ICIMOD and its partners. As we exchanged knowledge, we not only broadened our scientific understanding of cryosphere dynamics but also fostered cross-cultural connections within the research community and identified areas for potential research collaborations.
As a glaciologist, fieldwork is a fundamental part of my research, and I have undertaken numerous expeditions, each presenting its own challenges. I was pleasantly surprised that Hailuogou Glacier was easily accessible, unlike my experiences in Nepal, where at least one week is required to reach most glaciers. We reached Hailuogou after just a one-hour drive from Moxi old town, making this an unusually convenient field experience.
One of our key partners in China, the Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment (IMHE) at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is actively monitoring Hailuogou Glacier. Professor Liu Qiao from IMHE shared insights into ongoing activities on the glacier and highlighted its rapidly changing features, which illustrate the effects of climate change. One major transformation has occurred in the glacier’s icefall, which was previously connected to the glacier tongue. However, the tongue is now completely detached from the rest of the glacier due to thinning, leaving behind a steep cliff and exposed bedrock.
A cable car ride over the glacier offered us a unique view, further highlighting the dramatic changes to the icefall. In the past, trekkers could descend from a lateral moraine to the glacier, but the extent of glacier down-wasting has rendered the trail inaccessible. Once a popular attraction for its breathtaking beauty, the icefall is now steadily diminishing.
A visit to the Alpine Ecosystem Observation and Experiment Station of Mt. Gongga, a national station of IMHE led by Director Chang Ruiying, helped us gain a deeper understanding of the efforts made by our partners to monitor the changing patterns of the glacier and the technologies used for studying it. The station plays a crucial role in observing and conducting research within the alpine ecosystem, offering valuable insights into the impacts of climate change on glaciers such as Hailuogou.
Under the guidance of Professor Tian Lide from the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research at the CAS, we learned about the process of extracting ice cores - one of the methods used to study past climates. Professor Tian Lide demonstrated how shallow ice cores are extracted at a chosen glacier site where the ice surface is exposed and suitable for drilling. The ice cores’ layers, accumulated over centuries, provide valuable clues about past climate conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric composition. The ice traps air bubbles and particles such as dust, ash, and pollutants that reveal environmental pollution levels from the past. Studying these properties can improve our understanding of glacier health and enables researchers to both examine past biological activities involving microorganisms and pollen and to model future changes.
We, an animated group of young researchers, felt invigorated by the three days spent learning about the magnificent Hailuogou Glacier, its vulnerability to climate change, and the growing public concern over its future.
The experience of participating in this expedition has empowered me to inspire young researchers to delve into the study of the cryosphere, emphasising the critical need for ongoing glacier monitoring across the HKH region. This effort is vital for understanding the changes happening, the hazards involved, and the impacts on ecosystems and communities. To safeguard these essential resources, we must invest in training the next generation of researchers. With only a small fraction of glaciers studied, it is imperative that we expand our research efforts to deepen our understanding of their dynamics and the environmental changes they bring.
The expedition to Hailuogou Glacier not only expanded my understanding of cryosphere issues but also underscored the dedication, resilience, and passion required to work in glacial environments. I left with a profound sense of responsibility and a strong desire to contribute to the protection of glaciers and to ensuring that we respond effectively to the challenges posed by the changing climate.
Rangelands, which are found in diverse ecosystems, support both livelihoods and rich biodiversity, and are principally used for grazing by domestic or wild animals. In Bhutan, these include both forest and open ecosystems, from the subtropical grasslands in the southern foothills to temperate rangelands at middle elevations and high-elevation alpine meadows (Wangda, 2011), where they are grazed mostly by yak and cattle. However, they are coming under increasing threat due to the rapid spread of weeds and invasive species, which is also a pervasive issue globally.
The proliferation of weeds and invasive species is recognised as one of the main drivers of rangeland degradation in Bhutan, which is further exacerbated by climate change, and changes in management practices and government policies (Millar & Tenzing, 2021). These bring about huge changes in structure and ecological functioning that have far-reaching consequences, including displacement of native species, changes in cultural practices, and socio-economic losses. Changes include an increase in aboveground net primary productivity, which promotes competition for light and changes in the dynamics of interactions with grazers and pastoralists. Furthermore, it impacts the water and nutrient cycles within an ecosystem, as well as infiltration capacities and fire dynamics. Fire is particularly important to rangelands, where it is a fundamental ecological process of many ecosystems.
Given the ecological diversity within Bhutan, there are varying drivers that affect changes in these systems. For example, the alpine and temperate rangelands across Bhutan are undergoing serious changes brought about by the encroachment of shrubs such as Rhododendron and Juniper. Among the few studies carried out in Bhutan, Dorji et al (2024) showed that an increase in the species and dominance of shrub species in the summer rangelands of Dagala in western Bhutan reduced plant species richness by 50–90%. Overgrazing in Bhutanese rangelands is an ongoing issue (Chophyel, 2009) that causes the proliferation of weeds and other unpalatable species such as Potentilla peduncularis Rumex, Senecio spp.
In subtropical to temperate regions, the spread of invasive alien species is a major threat to biodiversity (NBSAP, 2014). Globally, invasive alien species are considered among the two greatest threats to biodiversity (Dueñas et al., 2018), and their impacts are likely to be even higher in developing countries like Bhutan. Some of the most problematic species there include Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratina adenophora, and Mikania micrantha. These species are believed to have been introduced to Bhutan accidentally as seed contaminants, or deliberately as fodder or ornamental plants, and their movement has been facilitated by trade across Bhutan’s porous border with India (Yangzom et al 2020). Some of these species display aggressive growth and allelopathic effects – whereby a plant releases toxins to suppress the growth of other plants – enabling them to out-compete native species and form dominant stands.
The relationship between the drivers and impacts of encroachment is complex and depends on context (Maestre et al., 2020). For example, the effects will depend on the species and their functional traits, management history, and ecological conditions. This complexity and the importance of rangelands underscores the urgent need for further studies from Bhutan to aid our understanding of their impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services in the otherwise understudied Himalayan rangeland system and is crucial for the development of appropriate management strategies.
Mr. Tshering Dorji, PhD Student
University of Edinburgh (School of GeoSciences) & Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
Tshering.Dorji@ed.ac.uk or tdorji@rbge.org.uk
Dr. Colin Pendry
Editor (Flora of Nepal), Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
cpendry@rbge.org.uk
Chophyel, P. (2009). Rangeland management in Bhutan: A consultancy report. Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture.
Dorji, T. (2023). Graminoid richness and composition patterns along a shrub cover gradient in Dagala, Bhutan. MSc. Thesis, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
Dueñas, M. A., Ruffhead, H. J., Wakefield, N. H., Roberts, P. D., Hemming, D. J., & Diaz-Soltero, H. (2018). The role played by invasive species in interactions with endangered and threatened species in the United States: a systematic review. Biodiversity and Conservation, 27, 3171-3183.
Maestre, F. T., Eldridge, D. J., & Soliveres, S. (2016). A multifaceted view on the impacts of shrub encroachment. Applied Vegetation Science, 19(3), 369-370.
Millar, J., & Tenzing, K. (2021). Transforming degraded rangelands and pastoralists' livelihoods in Eastern Bhutan. Mountain Research and Development, 41(4), D1-D7.
National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan. (2014). National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan. Thimphu, Bhutan. National Biodiversity Center, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests.
Wangda, P. (2017). Rangeland Areas of Bhutan. National Research Centre for Animal Nutrition Bumthang
Yangzom, R. et al. (2018). A Pictorial Guide to Major Invasive Plant Species of Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan.
It is with profound respect and a deep sense of loss that we commemorate the life and legacy of Professor Jack D. Ives, who passed away on 15 September 2024. A pioneering geographer, geomorphologist and visionary scholar, Professor Ives dedicated his career to bringing global attention to the challenges faced by mountain regions, particularly the Himalayas: and it is hard to overstate the role he played in shaping the discourse on mountain development, and in the birth of ICIMOD itself.
Professor Ives's name is synonymous with mountain research, and he was instrumental in shifting the global discourse around mountains from one of mere exploration to one of sustainability, resilience, and conservation. One of his most influential works, The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation (1989), co-authored with Bruno Messerli, remains a seminal text in the field of mountain studies. This book addressed alarmist reports that claimed the Himalayan region was on the verge of ecological collapse due to deforestation, erosion, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Ives and Messerli challenged this reductive, predominant narrative, with evidence of the more complex socio-economic, political, and environmental forces at play in the Himalayas.
Professor Ives accumulated many accolades in his illustrious career, including recognition from the UNEP Global 500 Award for his environmental achievements and the King Albert I Memorial Medal for his contributions to the development of mountain regions. His work with UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) further solidified his reputation as a global leader in mountain research and conservation.
Ives’s work through the MAB Programme and his chairing of its International Working Group not only contributed to the founding of ICIMOD but also advanced global understanding of the importance of integrating ecological, economic, and social considerations in mountain development. Ives envisioned an institution that would serve as a regional hub for research, knowledge sharing, and policy development focused specifically on mountain environments. He believed that such an institution would foster collaboration between the countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, helping them address shared challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable livelihoods.
As we reflect on his life, we remember Ives, not only for his intellectual contributions, but also for his warmth and generosity, and his commitment to the advancement of the careers of young researchers. His ability to inspire and engage with people from all walks of life, from local communities in mountain regions to policymakers and fellow academics, was truly exceptional. His tireless efforts laid the foundation for a more sustainable and equitable future for the Hindu Kush Himalaya and beyond.
At ICIMOD, we owe much of our foundation to Professor Ives' vision and leadership. His belief in the power of collaboration and knowledge sharing across borders remains at the heart of our work today. His passing is a tremendous loss to the global mountain community, but his legacy endures in the ongoing work of ICIMOD and among his wide network of colleagues and friends. We will always remember him as a pioneer, mentor, and friend.
Grazing of plants by domesticated livestock is an important ecosystem service of either private or public grazing lands. However, not all plants growing in these areas are palatable or desirable. Several plant species can: be undesirable to livestock, be poisonous, outcompete desirable plants, or cause other issues such as blocking of livestock access to desirable plants. In this respect, it is important to understand the difference between native plants, invasive plants, and weeds.
Native or indigenous plants are those that have been growing in a particular habitat for thousands of years, oftentimes even before the arrival of humans to that area. These species co-evolve with their beneficial organisms and predators and are well adapted to the local environmental, climatic, and soil conditions.
Invasive or non-native plants or alien plants are those that are not native to the area. They are often introduced purposely or accidentally by humans or birds or grazing animals from another area. These plants usually proliferate and outcompete the native plants and cause environmental or economic harm. Often, these are not palatable or desirable to grazing animals and hence are detrimental to grazing lands. These plants usually disrupt ecosystem services of the grazing area and are, therefore, categorised as invasive weeds.
A weed is a plant that grows in a place where it is not wanted and competes with plants desired by humans, or in the case of pastures, grazing areas, and rangelands, by livestock. Thus, the term ‘weed’ is a plant that is perceived to be undesirable in the system of immediate interest to humans, e.g. agriculture farm, home gardens, grazing areas etc. Weeds can be plants of native or alien origin. Based on this definition, a native plant can also become a weed if it proliferates and competes with desirable plants of human interest. There have been cases where a native plant has aggressively taken over a landscape and outcompeted other desirable plant species. Such examples can be observed in grazing pastures and rangelands, and we present one such example from Bhutan.
Usually, it is preferred that pastures and grazing lands have a dominance of plant species palatable to the livestock and a balanced presence of some desirable plant species that may not be palatable but provide ecosystem services such as prevention of soil erosion, shade to the livestock, or other soil and environmental balances. In an ideal world, a perfect balance in these plant species is desired. However, oftentimes, undesired plants of native or alien origin can make incursions into the grazing areas, outcompete the desirable species, cause imbalances in the plant communities, and disrupt ecosystem services of the area. These problems often go unnoticed and within a short time it becomes ‘too late’ to implement economically viable management options.
Two problematic natives
In this section, we present an experience of how two native plants have caused imbalances in the plant communities in grazing lands (approximately 3300 m amsl) of Bhutan and caused disruptions in ecosystem services and the seasonal migration and use of these pastures by transhumant yak herders. The two native plants are Rumex nepalensis (Photo 1) and Anisodus luridus (Photo 2).
Although these are native plants, they have made incursions in the grazing areas, outcompeted the desirable and palatable native plants, almost become the sole dominant species (Photo 3, 4), and disrupted the ecosystem services of the grazing areas. Although most plant species have some desirable properties in them, unfortunately, until we find reliable information on such, they become weeds in these grazing areas. As a result, these grazing areas are losing their utility and becoming huge patches with limited ecosystem services to human interest and to the wild ungulates that also use these areas. The damages to the interests of yak herders were numerous, ranging from economic to social interests.
The economic and ecosystem costs of these imbalances in plant species seem to be huge and the task at hand of restoring these grazing lands seems to be overwhelming. However, a start must be made in tackling this problem as it has begun to affect the livelihood of the yak herders. Since these are grazing lands, a simple weed management system designed for agricultural weeds does not look to be a solution as we are dealing with natural areas that provide ecosystem services and thus the solution also must be a natural management intervention with least disturbance to the ecosystem.
In conclusion, there is a great need to study the problem in greater depth and develop solutions before more grazing areas face this situation and lead to losses in biodiversity and the pastoral cultures dependent on their seasonal use. Granted that these are native plants but when such plants cause imbalances in ecosystems, management intervention is warranted before the problem goes out of control. Such interventions could be reseeding of native species, prescribed burning etc., but studies are needed before such strategies can be implemented.
This year, extreme heat waves, as well as flash floods, landslides, and other water-related hazards have hit millions of people across the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH). While historically the different communities living in the region have developed resilience strategies to cope with these harsh conditions, climate change has heightened these risks. Rapid glacier melt, unpredictable weather, and frequent disasters make disaster management an area for urgent improvement.
In September 2024, national disaster management authorities (NDMAs) from Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan came together in Islamabad to share their experiences and learn from each other. This exchange visit, organized by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and Pakistan’s National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), aimed to strengthen regional cooperation and find common ways to deal with climate-related disasters. The visit allowed experts to exchange ideas on how to respond to disasters and reduce the risks faced by communities living in this challenging region.
During the exchange visit, a key highlight was a Joint Simulation Exercise held at the National Emergency Operations Center in Islamabad. This exercise focused on the critical risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), drawing attention to GLOF events like the Badswat GLOF in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, and the Imja Glacier in Khumjung, Nepal. With representatives from Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan actively participating, the simulation allowed disaster management experts to share their preparedness and response strategies in each scenario.
Pakistan’s NDMA has dealt with many different types of natural disasters over the years, from a major earthquake in 2005, to the devastating floods of 2010 and 2022. During the visit, participants learnt how the agency deploys disaster management technologies, tools and approaches in emergencies.
Pakistan’s disaster management system is decentralized, meaning local authorities at the provincial and district levels have the power to respond quickly to emergencies. This structure ensures that communities across the country are better prepared for disasters, with faster response times and strategies tailored to the needs of each region.
One of the key messages from the exchange was the need for countries in the HKH region to work together more closely. As past disasters such as floods and landslides show, hazards do not stop at national borders. Transboundary cooperation in areas like early warning systems, data sharing, joint disaster simulations, and coordinated response strategies is essential for effective disaster management.
Participants discussed the potential for creating a regional platform where disaster management authorities from the HKH region could regularly meet to share data, strategies, and best practices. The idea of a regional early warning system also gained attention. Such a system could help countries share important information about incoming disasters, allowing for faster and more coordinated responses. This kind of collaboration could make a huge difference in saving lives and reducing the impact of natural disasters in the region.
This exchange visit is just one step toward a larger goal: building a more resilient future for the HKH region. As climate change continues to increase the frequency and intensity of natural disasters, cooperation between the region’s NDMAs will be more important than ever.
Lt. General Inam Malik, Chairman of NDMA Pakistan, highlighted the importance of both sharing Pakistan’s experiences and learning from its neighbours, particularly in areas like climate-induced tourism risks. His vision for collaboration focuses on several key areas:
Anil Pokhrel, Chief Executive of Nepal’s National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority, noted the shared experiences of Nepal and Pakistan in facing large-scale seismic and climate-induced disasters. “This exchange has offered us important lessons from Pakistan’s advancements in disaster response, particularly in their emergency operations,” he said. “By working together, we can enhance our preparedness for glacial lake outburst floods, a common threat driven by climate change, and identify new opportunities for collaboration in disaster risk management.”
Sonam Tshewang, Executive Engineer at Bhutan's Ministry of Home Affairs, emphasized the importance of regional cooperation. “This initiative underscores how critical it is for our countries to work together. The knowledge we have gained here will enhance our disaster management efforts back home.”
Arun B. Shrestha, who leads ICIMOD’s Climate and Environmental Risks work, reiterated the value of the exchange in preparing for future disasters. “ICIMOD’s mission is to promote knowledge-sharing and strengthen the network of disaster management professionals across the region. The challenges we face are collective, and so too must be our solutions.”
Mountains are crucial for ecological protection, serving as vital reservoirs of natural resources and biodiversity. However, their rugged terrain presents unique challenges, including unstable slopes, fragile ecosystems, and natural hazards such as landslides, debris flows, and flash floods. These complexities are further exacerbated by climate change and human activities, making the protection of mountain environments both urgent and difficult. The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region exemplifies this intricate dynamic. As a key area for studying mountain ecology, resources, environmental challenges, and sustainable development, the HKH serves as a natural laboratory for understanding the multifaceted nature of mountain environments. Despite its significance, the region faces considerable challenges in balancing environmental protection with sustainable development.
On 29-30 July, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), in collaboration with the Sub-Society on Mountain Research of the Geographical Society of China and the Central Department of Geography at Tribhuvan University, hosted the International Conference on ‘Environmental Protection, Modernization, and Sustainable Development in Mountain Regions’. This event aimed to draw attention to the HKH and encourage expanded research collaborations and partnerships across this critical region.
The conference attracted over 150 scientists, scholars, and sustainable mountain development practitioners, including representatives from India, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Rwanda, the UK, and beyond. Sessions covered a wide range of topics essential to the HKH region, including a Regional Dialogue on Accelerating Climate Resilience in the Hydropower Sector of the HKH Region, which emphasised the need for climate-resilient approaches in hydropower development, given the increasing risks posed by climate change, and an academic session on Disaster Risk, Cryosphere, and Water Research, where participants discussed the growing threats to the cryosphere and water resources in the HKH, and the need for robust disaster risk management strategies.
Key presentations included 'Disaster and Recovery Experience of Upper Bhote Koshi Hydroelectric Project' by Bikram Sthapit, CEO of Bhote Koshi Power Company Pvt. Ltd. He emphasized the crucial collaboration between his company and Chinese scientist Prof. Chen Ningsheng of Yangtze University and IMHE-CAS, who provided support in transboundary disaster assessment and information sharing for the 2016 GLOF that occurred upstream in China but caused significant damage to the Upper Bhote Koshi Hydroelectric Project downstream in Nepal. Additional sessions showcased research updates that underscored the interconnectedness of ecosystems and livelihoods, the importance of sustainable development practices benefiting both people and nature, and the impacts of human activities on land use and agriculture in reshaping the HKH landscape.
This conference was one of the largest knowledge-sharing events hosted by ICIMOD, in partnership with organisations from China and Nepal, aimed at disseminating the latest research, identifying knowledge gaps, and setting the stage for future initiatives to address these gaps. More than 60 institutions participated, fostering potential collaboration opportunities, including a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between ICIMOD and the Hydropower Sustainability Alliance (HSA) to collaborate on advancing climate-resilient hydropower development across the HKH.
A notable highlight of the conference was a panel discussion that emphasised ICIMOD's role as a platform for bringing together voices from across the region. Representatives from five regional member countries (India, Bhutan, China, Nepal, and Pakistan) discussed the implications of modernisation and sustainable development for the HKH region's mountains and communities. For example, Ms. Tshering Lhamo Dukpa, Senior Lecturer of Development Economics from Royal Thimphu College, shared her insights into preserving cultural heritage and addressing the development aspirations of mountain communities in Bhutan, while Prof. Fan Linfeng of IMHE-CAS discussed the trade-offs between development and environmental protection, using China's “Clear Waters and Green Mountains” campaign as an example of a people-centered approach to people’s wellbeing that emphasises the importance of harmony between man and nature, reflecting the traditional Chinese philosophy of Tian Ren He Yi.
As the HKH region continues to face environmental and developmental challenges, the collaborative efforts showcased at this conference represent a significant step forward. By fostering partnerships and sharing knowledge, the region's researchers and institutions are better equipped to address the complex issues ahead. This conference not only highlighted the importance of protecting mountain environments but also emphasised the need for sustainable development that considers both ecological integrity and the well-being of the communities that call these mountains home.
Event page:
Media coverage:
中国地理学会山地分会2024年学术年会在尼泊尔加德满都召开 https://www.gsc.org.cn/gsc/xueshuDetail.html?id=20&contentId=1756
http://www.imde.cas.cn/kydt_2015/202408/t20240802_7240513.html
I have visited different cities in China many times; among them is Lijiang, in Yunnan province in southwestern China. This time I was there to attend the launch workshop of the Third Pole Climate Forum (TPCF) of the Third Pole Regional Climate Centre (TPRCC)-Network. The ‘third pole’ refers to the high mountain region of Asia, including the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region above 2000m, which features the largest area of frozen water outside the polar regions. This workshop in early June was attended by about 70 professionals from 18 countries engaged with the TPRCC-Network.
The TPRCC-Network is led by the China Meteorological Administration (CMA), and consists of three sub-regional geographical nodes – (i) Northern TP Node; (ii) Southern TP Node (India); and (iii) Western TP Node (Pakistan). It is facilitated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The TPCF provides a regional collaborative platform that brings together national, regional, and international climate experts, users, and stakeholders, including national meteorological and hydrological services (NMHSs). It is led by the CMA in collaboration with the India Meteorological Department, the Pakistan Meteorological Department, and the WMO. ICIMOD is a technical partner to the TPRCC-Network, along with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), Third Pole Environment (TPE), Global Cryosphere Watch (GCW), Global Water and Energy Exchanges (GEWEX) and Mountain Research Initiative (MRI). My colleague Miriam Jackson and I have been participating online in several TPRCC-Network meetings since last year.
It was exciting to visit yet another ancient city in China. I was travelling with another participant, and after an hour’s scenic bus ride at dusk, we approached the brightly lit Lijiang. Being a centre of tourism, there were many shops and restaurants catering to lively groups of people.
The city of Lijiang is said to go back more than 100,000 years and is considered one of the most important centres of ancient human activity in southwestern China. It is famous for its Old Town, which has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Old Town contains a fascinating blend of different historical architectural styles, and its water management and culture are an important part of its heritage. The system was built during the late Song dynasty, in the late 13th century CE. I was very keen to explore the ancient city’s traditional water management system. As we walked through the Old City, on either side of the old cobblestone streets, we saw drains that kept the road dry despite the rain. We took a long walk through the ancient city, admiring its beauty and its well-preserved infrastructure, including the traditional water wheels that were used for irrigation.
A field visit to the Yulong glacier situated in the Hengduan mountain range was an eye opener. A cable car took us to a glacier park with an observation platform at 4,506 metres above sea level (masl) (14,783 ft). I had never been on a cable car at such an altitude. There was also another observation deck, about 200m higher, with winding steps going up the mountain side.
Despite it being a rainy day, there were many tourists, with raincoats and carrying portable oxygen cylinders. There has been a sharp rise in the number of tourists in the Yulong area in recent years, from 1.2 million in 2002 to 4.32 million in 2018 with numbers continuing to rise. The influx of tourists is good for the local economy but had me wondering about its impacts on glaciers in the area, and on the rate of glacial melt in particular. My concerns were substantiated by an article in the Journal of Glaciology, which suggested that the major reason for glacier retreat in the Yulong mountain was the increasing number of visitors to the glaciers and the development of unsustainable tourism activities and infrastructure such as roads, hotels, cableways, and communication lines that accompanied the increase in the number of vehicles and a rise in the region’s ‘floating populations’. Tourism has undoubtedly been an economic boost for Lijiang city, but has also resulted in unsustainable water use. In addition, inadequate water management measures have caused a deterioration in the water quality.
Wang et al. (2020) show that glaciers in the Yulong Snow Mountain retreated by 64 per cent between 1957 and 2017. Between these years, the mean annual mass balance of one of the glaciers (Baishui River Glacier No. 1) was -0.42 ‘metre water equivalent’ – a term used to indicate whether a glacier has become thicker or thinner, – which is higher than that reported for the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region in ICIMOD’s 2023 HI-WISE report on the cryosphere and ecosystems in the HKH.
A number of observation stations have been installed on the Yulong mountain by the Chinese Academy of Sciences to monitor the changes in the cryosphere. The first real-time monitoring system for glaciers in China was established in 2021. Due to global warming and localised anthropogenic factors, the snow line – the altitude above which there is snow perennially – in the Yulong Snow Mountain continues to rise, and there is an accelerated melting and shrinking of glaciers, with profound impacts on the availability of water.
Participants at the inaugural session of the TPCF mainly discussed the demands of climate and cryosphere products and services for the Third Pole and assessed the current state of monitoring of the Asian alpine climate system. A seasonal outlook was discussed and finalised. The statement from the workshop provided an overview of surface air temperature (SAT), precipitation, snow cover, and the extreme events and hazards observed during the preceding season in regions of the Third Pole, and offered an outlook for temperature and precipitation for June to September 2024 to inform decision-making.
The workshop and visits to Lijiang and the Yulong glacier underlined the practical importance of an improved understanding of the cryosphere through knowledge and information and its linkages with people and society. The TPRCC-Network plans to organise regular meetings of the TPCF twice a year to provide seasonal outlooks that would enable better preparedness and improved decision-making in the Third Pole region.
Originating from the glaciers of Tibet, the mighty Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra River carves its path through some of the most ecologically and geopolitically complex regions in the world, and is one of the world’s most densely populated river basins. It provides essential resources like water, food and electricity, and economic opportunities in the form of agriculture and fishing; as such, it is a lifeline for over 114 million people across Bangladesh, Bhutan, China and India. Despite its importance, the basin remains largely underdeveloped.
Sharing a river’s bounties requires sharing its burdens too. The basin faces many cascading challenges that are transboundary in nature. Climate change impacts, such as an increase in glacier melt, erratic rainfall patterns and extreme weather, has heightened vulnerability and water insecurity for downstream communities, particularly for women and marginalised groups.
The Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra River holds immense potential for sustainable development and prosperity. Realising this potential requires regional collaboration to address transboundary challenges.
Recognising the need for joint action to address the transboundary challenges of the river basin, ICIMOD convened scholars, development professionals, and entrepreneurs in December 2023 in Kathmandu, Nepal, to initiate discussions around forming a network of various stakeholders, tentatively called the Brahmaputra Basin Network (BBN). This network was envisioned to foster dialogue, collaborative research, and collective action among the riparian countries. As a result of this meeting, the participants decided to name the network the ‘Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra Basin Network’ (YBBN) for greater inclusivity.
During the recent YBBN stakeholder meeting, held on 17 July, 2024, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, the network had a real breakthrough. With 37 key stakeholders from three riverine countries, this meeting marked a significant step in formalising the YBBN and establishing four thematic technical working groups to guide the network’s future efforts. The meeting was organised by ICIMOD’s group on ‘Resilient River Basins of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH)’ and supported by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) through the TROSA Phase-2 project.
The working groups will focus on hydrology and climate, environmental conservation, socio-economic impacts, and policy outreach, ensuring comprehensive regional cooperation. An ad-hoc committee with representatives from Bangladesh, China, and India was also formed to oversee the development of these working groups and ensure ongoing stakeholder engagement. Although Bhutan was not present, efforts are underway to involve Bhutanese authorities in future discussions, highlighting the importance of their participation for the long-term resilience of the basin. These collective efforts not only strengthen the foundation for transboundary cooperation but also enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of the network’s initiatives, ensuring that they reflect the diverse needs and aspirations of the communities dependent on the river.
The Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra River basin faces numerous challenges, including the impacts of climate change and developmental activities that are altering the natural flow and health of the river. Bangladesh, located at the lower end of the basin, is already grappling with reduced dry season flows, which affect groundwater recharge, fisheries, and irrigation. Floods, soil erosion, and sedimentation further exacerbate these challenges, leading to significant socio-economic impacts, including forced migration, loss of livelihoods, and diminished access to essential services. Despite these challenges, there is a growing recognition among the riverine countries that collaboration is not just beneficial but essential. The recent renewal of the MoU on ‘Provision of Hydrological Information of the Yaluzangbu (Yarlung Zangbo)/ Brahmaputra River in Flood Season by China to Bangladesh’ is a positive sign of this effort.
As highlighted in the recent report by ICIMOD and partners, Elevating River Basin Governance and Cooperation in the HKH region: Summary Report I, Yarlung-Tsangpo-Siang-Brahmaputra-Jamuna River Basin, “there is a view that gains in water security for one country must result in losses in water security for the other.” The YBBN, therefore, aims to shift this narrative from a zero-sum mentality – where one country’s gain is perceived as another’s loss – to one of shared benefits and responsibilities. By fostering greater data sharing, transparency, and joint research, the network seeks to harness the river’s full potential for the mutual benefit of all basin countries.
The Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra River basin stands at a crossroads – or a confluence. The challenges it faces – from climate change to geopolitical tensions – are significant, but so too are the opportunities for sustainable development through regional cooperation. The YBBN represents a critical step in this direction, offering a platform for collaborative research, knowledge sharing, and policy advancement. It operates via a basin-wide approach that addresses the water-energy-food-ecosystem nexus across the basin, guided by the network’s four working groups.
By embracing this network and committing to cooperation, the riverine countries can unlock the river’s vast potential, to build a climate-resilient and sustainable future for millions of people. The YBBN is more than just a network, it is a call to action – an invitation to work together in building a prosperous and secure future for the Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra basin.
In the words of the stakeholders who gathered in Dhaka, “the key to this future lies in open dialogue, shared understanding, and a collective commitment to the wellbeing of the river and its people”. The YBBN, with ICIMOD as its secretariat, is poised to lead this effort, transforming water security from a competition into a shared goal that benefits communities across borders. As we mark World Rivers Day, this year on 22nd September, it is a poignant moment to build awareness of the essential collaboration that the YBBN aims to bring to the riverine communities of the Yarlung Zangbo-Brahmaputra basin, to ensure the continued values that this powerful river brings to millions amidst growing challenges.
This year’s Beijing International Forum for Metropolitan Clean Air and Climate Actions took place in the same district where I lived some months in 2019, when I worked on air quality management in collaboration with the Beijing Academy of Science and Technology to set-up a modelling platform based on the French model CHIMERE. With characteristic energy, the district, and city, has been transformed in the five years since I left—with the revival of cycling, an abundance of green spaces, progress on solar, and perhaps the most dramatic improvement of all in the quality of the air that the city’s 22 million people breathe.
China has over the course of the last decade completely reversed its air quality, going from laggard on air quality to leader in carbon emission intensity, particulate matter (PM), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emission reductions, with Beijing’s PM2.5 concentrations dropping from 90 µg/m3 in 2013 to around 32 µg/m3 in 2023.
What many admire most, of course, is that China proved that it is possible to ‘decouple’ air pollutant emissions and GDP growth.
Invited by Clean Air Asia, I could travel to the city this month to attend the 2024 Beijing International Forum for Metropolitan Clean Air and Climate Actions hosted by the Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau (BEE) and supported by the BRI International Green Development Coalition (BRIGC), Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI), C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40) and organized by Beijing Municipal Research Institute of Eco-Environmental Protection, Beijing Municipal Ecological and Environmental Monitoring Center, and Beijing Climate Change Management Center. This forum took place on the margins of the annual China International Fair for Trade in Services (CIFTIS).
Zhao Yingmin, Vice Minister, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China (MEE), who often represents China at United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of Parties, and Tan Xuxiang, Vice Mayor, the People’s Government of Beijing Municipality opened the event: underscoring the progress China, and in particular Beijing, has made in addressing air quality, and the co-benefits of such action for climate outcomes. The impact of air pollution on ecosystems, green areas and glaciers were cited as important challenges.
As well as pointing out the impact of the stringent air pollution policies China has introduced since 2012, they pointed out that unilateral action alone could not solve the challenge of air pollution, given its global and transboundary nature.
Gino Van Begin, Secretary General of ICLEI spotlighted the central role of cities in reducing emissions, with a particular focus on Nature-based Solutions; Zou Ji, CEO & President of Energy Foundation China, spoke on the environmental meaning of high-quality development, underscoring the importance of China’s target of PM2.5 concentrations of 30 µg/m3 by 2030.
Julia Lipton, Director of Climate Action Planning and Innovation, C40 Cities, the leading global network for city mayors confronting the climate crisis, highlighted good practice: including Barcelona’s tourist tax to finance heat pumps and solar panels, and Boston’s efforts to discourage fossil fuel use in new buildings.
Sydney Vergis, Deputy Executive Officer, California Air Resources Board (CARB) presented on California’s work and ambition in the deployment of electric vehicles (especially trucks); and Jung Yoo-Jin, Climate & Environment Headquarters, Seoul, Republic of Korea, set out control measures adopted in Seoul to tackle volatile organic compounds, primarily released from gasoline and solvents, including paintings, favored in high temperatures.
Glynda Bathan-Baterina, Deputy Executive Director of Clean Air in Asia (CAA) emphasized the importance of regional cooperation in achieving Clean Air in Asia and the huge opportunity to learn from China’s leadership on air pollution.
Liu Baoxian, Deputy Director General of Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau (BEE) unveiled updated statistics on pollution and carbon in the city: with Beijing recording 271 days of good air quality, 95 days more than 10 years ago.
In Beijing, since 2013, carbon emission intensity has been reduced by more than 50%, PM emissions by 64%, SO2 emissions by 89 %, NO2 emissions by 54%. These reductions translated in improved wellbeing of publics, and recognition by the international community. Keeping these mitigation efforts could lead in 2035 to concentrations below 25 µg/m3.
Matthew Katz, Senior Program Officer, ICLEI USA presented a dashboard to monitor GHG emissions based on AI (Artificial Intelligence) techniques and other functionalities (ClimateView Plateform 2.0).
Science and data to guide and assess mitigation action remains key to maintaining emission reductions. In Beijing, data is drawn from online reporting from industries, monitoring of flying dust from construction, and volatile organic compounds, with machine learning deployed to manage data and identify sources and ultimately to treat any violations of environmental laws.
China’s air quality forecasting can be delivered by models like the EarthLab system, which couples atmospheric, ocean and ecosystem models, Pr. Wang Zifa, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences told delegates. The tool uses a French application, MUNICH, to simulate air quality up to the street level.
Despite the huge progress made in reducing PM2.5 concentrations since their maximum in 2013, challenges remain, reductions of PM2.5 concentrations now starting to stall. Ozone concentrations remain an issue and have even increased since 2015. However, there are huge lessons South Asia, and the world can learn from China’s approaches, with a huge amount to be done to increase interregional collaboration and national action to ensure we genuinely secure clean air for everyone. The good news is how open Chinese local and central government seem to sharing what has worked.