Freshwater springs and wildlife dependence

By: Sunder Subramanian

Source of life in arid environments

Springs are places where life is highly concentrated. The species occurring at or around springs include taxa or groups of organisms from uplands, riparian areas (adjacent to rivers), wetlands, and aquatic areas. Springs-dependent species (SDS) are organisms that require spring habitats for at least one life stage. Some SDSs exist only in spring sources and outflows, while others – dragonflies, aquatic true bugs, tiger and diving beetles, some species of flies, amphibians, fish, and other vertebrates – require spring habitats for spawning and/or larval rearing.

Wildlife adapted to drylands have developed specific strategies to minimise water loss and optimise water recycling through anatomical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations [1, 2]. Although some ungulates (hooved mammals) and herbivores can extract enough water from their food [3], most species need to drink regularly, and the availability of water strongly influences their daily, seasonal, or annual movements [4, 5].

Since standing water from precipitation is typically absent in dry environments, large herbivores have to regularly access waterpoints, such as springs, that serve as vital oases in arid regions. Waterpoints tend to be scarce and constitute distinct spaces that stand out from the surroundings. As such, they are places where herbivores become particularly vulnerable to competition, disturbance, and predation [6]. Many predator species in the mountains, including snow leopards and Eurasian lynx, also use waterpoints or springs to drink [7, 8].

Springs support not only the endemic species but also migratory ones and provide water for thousands of vertebrate and invertebrate species. Hence, understanding the factors affecting water use in space and time is a precondition for understanding movement strategies and habitat use of wildlife in arid ecosystems. Yet, in spite of the critical nature of water in arid climates, many springs remain unmapped. Without this basic information, conservation organisations and managers cannot protect these ecosystems or the species that rely on them.

Springs as refuges

It is highly likely that some springs serve as refuges for many species in isolated habitats where they can survive despite climate change-induced drying [9]. Understanding whether springs will provide hydrologic refuges from future climate change is important to biodiversity conservation but is complicated by precipitation and water flow variability among springs, data limitations, and multiple non-climate threats to groundwater-dependent ecosystems.

Clues about wildlife dependence on springs and the capacity of springs to act as refuges for isolated wildlife can be assembled from various approaches, including camera trapping, anecdotal information from local communities or pastoralists, monitoring signs of biological activity in and around springs, and remote sensing. Integrated evidence combining expert knowledge, prior experience, and research findings can be used to predict which springs may become future refuges for species of concern, strengthening the long-term effectiveness of their conservation and restoration, and informing climate adaptation for terrestrial and freshwater species.

Competition over water sources

It is becoming increasingly important to understand dynamics of competition in the use of spring water, existing or potential conflicts, and threats from conjunctive use, i.e. the coordinated use of surface water and groundwater from springs for agriculture, industry, and domestic use, livestock, and wildlife. For example, grazing is typically constrained to pastures close to water, thereby often reducing water and pasture accessible to wildlife [6]. Shared use of springs harbours the risk of disease transmission between livestock and wildlife. Further, the diversion of water for irrigation results in habitat conversion and, when associated with fencing, tends to block wildlife access to water altogether.

Protecting key springs

Thus, identifying key waterpoints and understanding their temporal and seasonal use by water-dependent wildlife, especially herbivores and other mammals, is an important first step to guide conservation planning, including anti-poaching programmes [10]. This is also relevant for booming sectors such as tourism (and the planning and regulation thereof), especially in many mountain contexts  – for example, ensuring that humans remain at a certain distance from waterpoints, especially at night so that wildlife can access waterpoints without being disturbed by unpredictable human activity [11]. As such, key springs should receive some form of protection that, at a minimum, ensures unlimited access by wildlife and limits disturbance to the surrounding habitat.

Sunder Subramanian is an independent development consultant and policy advisor with three decades of highly multi-disciplinary experience including with academia, the private sector, the non-profit sector, development research, and consulting. Sunder’s main domains of work and interests include – mountain development, climate change, environment, natural resources management, biological diversity, landscapes, protected areas and conservation, water, wastewater, and sanitation, among many others.

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